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Weber EJ, Tebes-Stevens C, Washington JW, Gladstone R. Development of a PFAS reaction library: identifying plausible transformation pathways in environmental and biological systems. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE. PROCESSES & IMPACTS 2022; 24:689-753. [PMID: 35485941 PMCID: PMC9361427 DOI: 10.1039/d1em00445j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are used in many consumer applications due to their stain repellency, surfactant properties, ability to form water-proof coatings and use in fire suppression. The production, application, transport, use and disposal of PFAS and PFAS-treated products have resulted in their wide-spread occurrence in environmental and biological systems. Concern over exposure to PFAS and their transformation products and metabolites has necessitated the development of tools to predict the transformation of PFAS in environmental systems and metabolism in biological systems. We have developed reaction libraries for predicting transformation products and metabolites in a variety of environmental and biological reaction systems. These reaction libraries are based on generalized reaction schemes that encode the process science of PFAS reported in the peer-reviewed literature. The PFAS reaction libraries will be executed through the Chemical Transformation Simulator, a web-based tool that is available to the public. These reaction libraries are intended for predicting the environmental transformation and metabolism of PFAS only.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric J Weber
- Center for Environmental Measurement and Modeling, United States Environmental Protection Agency, Athens, Georgia 30605, USA.
| | - Caroline Tebes-Stevens
- Center for Environmental Measurement and Modeling, United States Environmental Protection Agency, Athens, Georgia 30605, USA.
| | - John W Washington
- Center for Environmental Measurement and Modeling, United States Environmental Protection Agency, Athens, Georgia 30605, USA.
| | - Rachel Gladstone
- Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education (ORISE), Hosted at U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Athens, Georgia 30605, USA
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Im J, Walshe-Langford GE, Moon JW, Löffler FE. Environmental fate of the next generation refrigerant 2,3,3,3-tetrafluoropropene (HFO-1234yf). ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2014; 48:13181-13187. [PMID: 25329364 DOI: 10.1021/es5032147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
The hydrofluoroolefin 2,3,3,3-tetrafluoropropene (HFO-1234yf) has been introduced to replace 1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane (HFC-134a) as refrigerant in mobile, including vehicle, air conditioning systems because of its lower global warming potential. HFO-1234yf is volatile at ambient temperatures; however, high production volumes and widespread handling are expected to release this fluorocarbon into terrestrial and aquatic environments, including groundwater. Laboratory experiments explored HFO-1234yf degradation by (i) microbial processes under oxic and anoxic conditions, (ii) abiotic processes mediated by reactive mineral phases and zerovalent iron (Fe(0), ZVI), and (iii) cobalamin-catalyzed biomimetic transformation. These investigations demonstrated that HFO-1234yf was recalcitrant to microbial (co)metabolism and no transformation was observed in incubations with ZVI, makinawite (FeS), sulfate green rust (GR(SO4)), magnetite (Fe(3)O(4)), and manganese oxide (MnO2). Sequential reductive defluorination of HFO-1234yf to 3,3,3-trifluoropropene and 3,3-dichloropropene with concomitant stoichiometric release of fluoride occurred in incubations with reduced cobalamins (e.g., vitamin B12) indicating that biomolecules can transform HFO-1234yf at circumneutral pH and at ambient temperature. Taken together, these findings suggest that HFO-1234yf recalcitrance in aquifers should be expected; however, HFO-1234yf is not inert and a biomolecule may mediate reductive transformation in low redox environments, albeit at low rates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeongdae Im
- Center for Environmental Biotechnology, University of Tennessee , Knoxville, Tennessee 37996, United States
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Ernstgård L, Sjögren B, Gunnare S, Johanson G. Blood and exhaled air can be used for biomonitoring of hydrofluorocarbon exposure. Toxicol Lett 2014; 225:102-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2013.11.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2013] [Revised: 11/21/2013] [Accepted: 11/21/2013] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Tveit A, Rusch GM, Muijser H, Tegelenbosch-Schouten MM. The acute, developmental, genetic and inhalation toxicology of 2,3,3,3-tetrafluoropropene (HFO-1234yf). Drug Chem Toxicol 2013; 36:412-20. [DOI: 10.3109/01480545.2012.749273] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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Schmidt T, Bertermann R, Rusch GM, Tveit A, Dekant W. Biotransformation of trans-1-chloro-3,3,3-trifluoropropene (trans-HCFO-1233zd). Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2013; 268:343-51. [DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2013.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2013] [Revised: 02/06/2013] [Accepted: 02/08/2013] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Mawn MP, Kurtz K, Stahl D, Chalfant RL, Koban ME, Dawson BJ. Analytical method validation for the determination of 2,3,3,3-tetrafluoropropene in air samples using gas chromatography with flame ionization detection. JOURNAL OF OCCUPATIONAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL HYGIENE 2013; 10:583-589. [PMID: 24116663 DOI: 10.1080/15459624.2013.818226] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
A new low global warming refrigerant, 2,3,3,3-tetrafluoro propene, or HFO-1234yf, has been successfully evaluated for automotive air conditioning, and is also being evaluated for stationary refrigeration and air conditioning systems. Due to the advantageous environmental properties of HFO-1234yf versus HFC-134a, coupled with its similar physical properties and system performance, HFO-1234yf is also being evaluated to replace HFC-134a in refrigeration applications where neat HFC-134a is currently used. This study reports on the development and validation of a sampling and analytical method for the determination of HFO-1234yf in air. Different collection media were screened for desorption and simulated sampling efficiency with three-section (350/350/350 mg) Anasorb CSC showing the best results. Therefore, air samples were collected using two 3-section Anasorb CSC sorbent tubes in series at 0.02 L/min for up to 8 hr for sample volumes of up to 9.6 L. The sorbent tubes were extracted in methylene chloride, and analyzed by gas chromatography with flame ionization detection. The method was validated from 0.1× to 20× the target level of 0.5 ppm (2.3 mg/m(3)) for a 9.6 L air volume. Desorption efficiencies for HFO-1234yf were 88 to 109% for all replicates over the validation range with a mean overall recovery of 93%. Simulated sampling efficiencies ranged from 87 to 104% with a mean of 94%. No migration or breakthrough to the back tube was observed under the sampling conditions evaluated. HFO-1234yf samples showed acceptable storage stability on Anasorb CSC sorbent up to a period of 30 days when stored under ambient, refrigerated, or frozen temperature conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael P Mawn
- a E.I. DuPont de Nemours and Company , Wilmington , Delaware
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Schmidt T, Bertermann R, Rusch GM, Hoffman GM, Dekant W. Biotransformation of 2,3,3,3-tetrafluoropropene (HFO-1234yf) in male, pregnant and non-pregnant female rabbits after single high dose inhalation exposure. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2012; 263:32-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2012.05.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2012] [Revised: 05/25/2012] [Accepted: 05/26/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Tobias Schmidt
- Institut für Toxikologie, Universität Würzburg, Versbacher Str. 9, 97078 Würzburg, Germany
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Ernstgård L, Sjögren B, Dekant W, Schmidt T, Johanson G. Uptake and disposition of 1,1-difluoroethane (HFC-152a) in humans. Toxicol Lett 2011; 209:21-9. [PMID: 22155657 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2011.11.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2011] [Revised: 11/24/2011] [Accepted: 11/25/2011] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to determine the toxicokinetics of inhaled 1,1-difluoroethane (HFC-152a) in humans. Healthy volunteers were exposed to 0, 200 or 1000 ppm 1,1-difluoroethane for 2h at light exercise in an exposure chamber. Capillary blood, urine and exhaled air were sampled up to 22 h post-exposure and analyzed for 1,1-difluoroethane. Fluoride and other potential metabolites were analyzed in urine. Symptoms of irritation and central nervous system effects were rated and inflammatory markers were analyzed in blood. Within a few minutes of exposure to 200 and 1000 ppm, 1,1-difluoroethane increased rapidly in blood and reached average levels of 7.4 and 34.3 μM, respectively. The post-exposure decreases in blood were fast and parallel to those in exhaled air. The observed time courses in blood and breath agreed well with those obtained with the PBPK model. The PBPK simulations indicate a net uptake during exposure to 1000 ppm of 6.6 mmol (6.7%) which corresponds to the amount exhaled post-exposure. About 20 μmol excess fluoride (0.013% of inhaled 1,1-difluoroethane on a molar basis) was excreted in urine after exposure to 1000 ppm, compared to control. No fluorine-containing metabolites were detected in urine. Symptom ratings and changes in inflammatory markers revealed no exposure-related effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lena Ernstgård
- Work Environment Toxicology, Institute of Environmental Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden.
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Han X, Szostek B, Yang CH, Cheatham SF, Mingoia RT, Nabb DL, Gannon SA, Himmelstein MW, Jepson GW. Comparative Metabolism of 1,2,3,3,3-Pentafluoropropene in Male and Female Mouse, Rat, Dog, and Human Liver Microsomes and Cytosol and Male Rat Hepatocytes via Oxidative Dehalogenation and Glutathione S-Conjugation Pathways. Drug Metab Dispos 2011; 39:1288-93. [DOI: 10.1124/dmd.111.038299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
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Skarmoutsos I, Hunt PA. Structural and Dynamic Properties of the New Alternative Refrigerant 2,3,3,3-Tetrafluoro-1-propene (HFO-1234yf) in the Liquid State. J Phys Chem B 2010; 114:17120-7. [DOI: 10.1021/jp108647p] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Ioannis Skarmoutsos
- Chemistry Department, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
| | - Patricia A. Hunt
- Chemistry Department, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
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Schuster P, Bertermann R, Rusch GM, Dekant W. Biotransformation of 2,3,3,3-tetrafluoropropene (HFO-1234yf) in rabbits. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2010; 244:247-53. [DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2009.12.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2009] [Revised: 12/14/2009] [Accepted: 12/15/2009] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Current World Literature. Curr Opin Anaesthesiol 2009; 22:822-7. [DOI: 10.1097/aco.0b013e328333ec47] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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