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Kuczyńska K, Bartkowska K, Djavadian R, Zwierzyńska E, Wojcieszak J. MDPV (3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone) administered to mice during development of the central nervous system produces persistent learning and memory impairments. Pharmacol Rep 2024; 76:519-534. [PMID: 38722542 PMCID: PMC11126454 DOI: 10.1007/s43440-024-00599-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2024] [Revised: 04/16/2024] [Accepted: 04/18/2024] [Indexed: 05/25/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Synthetic cathinones (SC) constitute the second most frequently abused class of new psychoactive substances. They serve as an alternative to classic psychostimulatory drugs of abuse, such as methamphetamine, cocaine, or 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA). Despite the worldwide prevalence of SC, little is known about their long-term impact on the central nervous system. Here, we examined the effects of repeated exposure of mice during infancy, to 3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV), a SC potently enhancing dopaminergic neurotransmission, on learning and memory in young adult mice. METHODS All experiments were performed on C57BL/6J male and female mice. Animals were injected with MDPV (10 or 20 mg/kg) and BrdU (bromodeoxyuridine, 25 mg/kg) during postnatal days 11-20, which is a crucial period for the development of their hippocampus. At the age of 12 weeks, mice underwent an assessment of various types of memory using a battery of behavioral tests. Afterward, their brains were removed for detection of BrdU-positive cells in the dentate gyrus of the hippocampal formation with immunohistochemistry, and for measurement of the expression of synaptic proteins, such as synaptophysin and PSD95, in the hippocampus using Western blot. RESULTS Exposure to MDPV resulted in impairment of spatial working memory assessed with Y-maze spontaneous alternation test, and of object recognition memory. However, no deficits in hippocampus-dependent spatial learning and memory were found using the Morris water maze paradigm. Consistently, hippocampal neurogenesis and synaptogenesis were not interrupted. All observed MDPV effects were sex-independent. CONCLUSIONS MDPV administered repeatedly to mice during infancy causes learning and memory deficits that persist into adulthood but are not related to aberrant hippocampal development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katarzyna Kuczyńska
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, Medical University of Lodz, Muszyńskiego 1, 90-151, Łódź, Poland.
| | - Katarzyna Bartkowska
- Laboratory of Calcium Binding Proteins, Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology Polish Academy of Sciences, 3 Pasteur St., 02-093, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Ruzanna Djavadian
- Laboratory of Calcium Binding Proteins, Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology Polish Academy of Sciences, 3 Pasteur St., 02-093, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Ewa Zwierzyńska
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, Medical University of Lodz, Muszyńskiego 1, 90-151, Łódź, Poland
| | - Jakub Wojcieszak
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, Medical University of Lodz, Muszyńskiego 1, 90-151, Łódź, Poland
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Alanazi IM, Alzahrani AR, Alsaad MA, Moqeem AL, Hamdi AM, Taher MM, Watson DG, Helen Grant M. The effect of mephedrone on human neuroblastoma and astrocytoma cells. Saudi Pharm J 2024; 32:102011. [PMID: 38454918 PMCID: PMC10918268 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsps.2024.102011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/09/2024] Open
Abstract
Mephedrone is an illegal drug that is used recreationally. Few studies have been conducted to investigate the mechanisms by which mephedrone is harming cells. In this research, we investigated the effect of mephedrone using toxicology coupled with LC-MS/MS based metabolomics in the two CNS derived cell lines. Methods of assessment such as neutral red (NR) assay, dimethylthiazolyl diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT), lactose dehydrogenase (LDH) measurement, and morphology were performed to identify the effect on cell viability and to identify the best concentration to be used in a metabolomics study. A concentration of 100 μM of mephedrone was used in the metabolomic experiment because at this concentration mephedrone had induced several intracellular changes. Although there no clear indicators of cellular damage caused by mephedrone. In astrocytes there was a clear indication that cell membrane function might be impaired by depletion of ether lipids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ibrahim M. Alanazi
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Medicine, Umm Al-Qura University, Al-Abidiyah, P.O.Box 13578, Makkah 21955, Saudi Arabia
| | - Abdullah R. Alzahrani
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Medicine, Umm Al-Qura University, Al-Abidiyah, P.O.Box 13578, Makkah 21955, Saudi Arabia
| | - Mohammad A. Alsaad
- Department of Parasitology, College of Medicine, Umm AL Qura University, Al-Abidiyah, P.O.Box 13578, Makkah 21955, Saudi Arabia
| | - Abdulaziz L. Moqeem
- Home Health Care,Directorate of Health Affairs Jeddah, Ministry of Health, P.O.Box11176, Ryiadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Abdulmohsen M. Hamdi
- Home Health Care,Directorate of Health Affairs Jeddah, Ministry of Health, P.O.Box11176, Ryiadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Mohiuddin M. Taher
- Science and Technology Unit, Deanship of Scientific Research, and Department of Medical Genetics, College of Medicine, Umm-Al-Qura University, Makkah, Saudi Arabia
| | - David G. Watson
- Strathclyde Institute of Pharmacy & Biomedical Sciences, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow G4 0RE, UK
| | - M. Helen Grant
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow G4 0NW, UK
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3
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Angoa-Perez M, Kuhn DM. The pharmacology and neurotoxicology of synthetic cathinones. ADVANCES IN PHARMACOLOGY (SAN DIEGO, CALIF.) 2023; 99:61-82. [PMID: 38467489 DOI: 10.1016/bs.apha.2023.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/13/2024]
Abstract
The synthetic cathinones are man-made compounds derived from the naturally occurring drug cathinone, which is found in the khat plant. The drugs in this pharmacological class that will be the focus of this chapter include mephedrone, MDPV, methcathinone and methylone. These drugs are colloquially known as "bath salts". This misnomer suggests that these drugs are used for health improvement or that they have legitimate medical uses. The synthetic cathinones are dangerous drugs with powerful pharmacological effects that include high abuse potential, hyperthermia and hyperlocomotion. These drugs also share many of the pharmacological effects of the amphetamine class of drugs including methamphetamine, amphetamine and MDMA and therefore have high potential to cause damage to the central nervous system. The synthetic cathinones are frequently taken in combination with other psychoactive drugs such as alcohol, marijuana and the amphetamine-like stimulants, creating a situation where heightened pharmacological and neurotoxicological effects are likely to occur. Despite the structural features shared by the synthetic cathinones and amphetamine-like stimulants, including their actions at monoamine transporters and receptors, the effects of the synthetic cathinones do not always match those of the amphetamines. In particular, the synthetic cathinones are far less neurotoxic than their amphetamine counterparts, they produce a weaker hyperthermia, and they cause less glial activation. This chapter will briefly review the pharmacology and neurotoxicology of selected synthetic cathinones with the aim of delineating key areas of agreement and disagreement in the literature particularly as it relates to neurotoxicological outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariana Angoa-Perez
- Research and Development Service, John D. Dingell VA Medical Center, Detroit, MI, United States; Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurosciences, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, United States
| | - Donald M Kuhn
- Research and Development Service, John D. Dingell VA Medical Center, Detroit, MI, United States; Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neurosciences, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, United States.
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4
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Alavi MS, Sadeghnia HR, Nikpasand N, Sahab Negah S, Rashidi R, Naseri G, Ghorbani A. Mephedrone induced apoptosis and impaired neurogenesis in embryonic neural stem/progenitor cells. Can J Physiol Pharmacol 2023; 101:235-243. [PMID: 36821836 DOI: 10.1139/cjpp-2022-0350] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/25/2023]
Abstract
Mephedrone, a synthetic derivative of cathinone, is a commonly used psychoactive substance. Our previous study showed that exposure to mephedrone during pegnancy induced antiproliferative and pro-apoptotic effects in hippocampus of mice delivered pups. However, its effects on neural stem/progenitor cells (NS/PC) remain unexplored. The aim of this study is to investigate the effects of mephedrone exposure on the proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis of rat embryonic NS/PC. NS/PC were isolated from rat fetal ganglionic eminence region at embryonic day 14.5. The effects of mephedrone on cell proliferation, neurosphere formation (colonies of NS/PC), neuronal differentiation, and apoptosis of NS/PC were assessed using MTT, immunocytochemistry, and flow cytometry. Mephedrone at concentrations of 20-640 µM significantly decreased the proliferation of NS/PC, induced cell cycle arrest, and enhanced the percent of apoptotic and necrotic cells. Neurosphere assays revealed a significant reduction in the number and diameter of neurosphere-forming cells. In addition, mephedrone significantly decreased the expressions of DCX and NeuN neuronal markers. Taken together, our results suggeste that exposure to mephedrone decreases the viability and neuronal differentiation of embryonic NS/PC. This study showed that mephedrone exposure during fetal or neonatal life may impair neurogenesis and subsequent brain development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohaddeseh Sadat Alavi
- Pharmacological Research Center of Medicinal Plants, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Hamid Reza Sadeghnia
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Niloufar Nikpasand
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Sajad Sahab Negah
- Neuroscience Research Center, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Roghayeh Rashidi
- Pharmacological Research Center of Medicinal Plants, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Gholamreza Naseri
- Gorgan Congenital Malformations Research Center, Golestan University of Medical Sciences, Gorgan, Iran
| | - Ahmad Ghorbani
- Pharmacological Research Center of Medicinal Plants, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran.,Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
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Grotell M, den Hollander B, Jalkanen A, Törrönen E, Ihalainen J, de Miguel E, Dudek M, Kettunen MI, Hyytiä P, Forsberg MM, Kankuri E, Korpi ER. Alcohol Co-Administration Changes Mephedrone-Induced Alterations of Neuronal Activity. Front Pharmacol 2021; 12:679759. [PMID: 33995109 PMCID: PMC8115874 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2021.679759] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2021] [Accepted: 04/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Mephedrone (4-MMC), despite its illegal status, is still a widely used psychoactive substance. Its effects closely mimic those of the classical stimulant drug methamphetamine (METH). Recent research suggests that unlike METH, 4-MMC is not neurotoxic on its own. However, the neurotoxic effects of 4-MMC may be precipitated under certain circumstances, such as administration at high ambient temperatures. Common use of 4-MMC in conjunction with alcohol raises the question whether this co-consumption could also precipitate neurotoxicity. A total of six groups of adolescent rats were treated twice daily for four consecutive days with vehicle, METH (5 mg/kg) or 4-MMC (30 mg/kg), with or without ethanol (1.5 g/kg). To investigate persistent delayed effects of the administrations at two weeks after the final treatments, manganese-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging brain scans were performed. Following the scans, brains were collected for Golgi staining and spine analysis. 4-MMC alone had only subtle effects on neuronal activity. When administered with ethanol, it produced a widespread pattern of deactivation, similar to what was seen with METH-treated rats. These effects were most profound in brain regions which are known to have high dopamine and serotonin activities including hippocampus, nucleus accumbens and caudate-putamen. In the regions showing the strongest activation changes, no morphological changes were observed in spine analysis. By itself 4-MMC showed few long-term effects. However, when co-administered with ethanol, the apparent functional adaptations were profound and comparable to those of neurotoxic METH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Milo Grotell
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Bjørnar den Hollander
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Aaro Jalkanen
- School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, Finland
| | - Essi Törrönen
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Jouni Ihalainen
- School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, Finland
| | - Elena de Miguel
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Mateusz Dudek
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Mikko I Kettunen
- Kuopio Biomedical Imaging Unit, A.I. Virtanen Institute for Molecular Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, Finland
| | - Petri Hyytiä
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Markus M Forsberg
- School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, Finland
| | - Esko Kankuri
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Esa R Korpi
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
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6
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Grochecki P, Smaga I, Lopatynska-Mazurek M, Gibula-Tarlowska E, Kedzierska E, Listos J, Talarek S, Marszalek-Grabska M, Hubalewska-Mazgaj M, Korga-Plewko A, Dudka J, Marzec Z, Filip M, Kotlinska JH. Effects of Mephedrone and Amphetamine Exposure during Adolescence on Spatial Memory in Adulthood: Behavioral and Neurochemical Analysis. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:E589. [PMID: 33435576 PMCID: PMC7827725 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22020589] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2020] [Revised: 12/23/2020] [Accepted: 01/06/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
A synthetic cathinone, mephedrone is widely abused by adolescents and young adults. Despite its widespread use, little is known regarding its long-term effects on cognitive function. Therefore, we assessed, for the first time, whether (A) repeated mephedrone (30 mg/kg, i.p., 10 days, once a day) exposure during adolescence (PND 40) induces deleterious effects on spatial memory and reversal learning (Barnes maze task) in adult (PND 71-84) rats and whether (B) these effects were comparable to amphetamine (2.5 mg/kg, i.p.). Furthermore, the influence of these drugs on MMP-9, NMDA receptor subunits (GluN1, GluN2A/2B) and PSD-95 protein expression were assessed in adult rats. The drug effects were evaluated at doses that per se induce rewarding/reinforcing effects in rats. Our results showed deficits in spatial memory (delayed effect of amphetamine) and reversal learning in adult rats that received mephedrone/amphetamine in adolescence. However, the reversal learning impairment may actually have been due to spatial learning rather than cognitive flexibility impairments. Furthermore, mephedrone, but not amphetamine, enhanced with delayed onset, MMP-9 levels in the prefrontal cortex and the hippocampus. Mephedrone given during adolescence induced changes in MMP-9 level and up-regulation of the GluN2B-containing NMDA receptor (prefrontal cortex and hippocampus) in young adult (PND 63) and adult (PND 87) rats. Finally, in adult rats, PSD-95 expression was increased in the prefrontal cortex and decreased in the hippocampus. In contrast, in adult rats exposed to amphetamine in adolescence, GluN2A subunit and PSD-95 expression were decreased (down-regulated) in the hippocampus. Thus, in mephedrone-but not amphetamine-treated rats, the deleterious effects on spatial memory were associated with changes in MMP-9 level. Because the GluN2B-containing NMDA receptor dominates in adolescence, mephedrone seems to induce more harmful effects on cognition than amphetamine does during this period of life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pawel Grochecki
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacodynamics, Medical University, 20-093 Lublin, Poland; (P.G.); (M.L.-M.); (E.G.-T.); (E.K.); (J.L.); (S.T.)
| | - Irena Smaga
- Department of Drug Addiction Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, 31-343 Krakow, Poland; (I.S.); (M.H.-M.); (M.F.)
| | - Malgorzata Lopatynska-Mazurek
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacodynamics, Medical University, 20-093 Lublin, Poland; (P.G.); (M.L.-M.); (E.G.-T.); (E.K.); (J.L.); (S.T.)
| | - Ewa Gibula-Tarlowska
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacodynamics, Medical University, 20-093 Lublin, Poland; (P.G.); (M.L.-M.); (E.G.-T.); (E.K.); (J.L.); (S.T.)
| | - Ewa Kedzierska
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacodynamics, Medical University, 20-093 Lublin, Poland; (P.G.); (M.L.-M.); (E.G.-T.); (E.K.); (J.L.); (S.T.)
| | - Joanna Listos
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacodynamics, Medical University, 20-093 Lublin, Poland; (P.G.); (M.L.-M.); (E.G.-T.); (E.K.); (J.L.); (S.T.)
| | - Sylwia Talarek
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacodynamics, Medical University, 20-093 Lublin, Poland; (P.G.); (M.L.-M.); (E.G.-T.); (E.K.); (J.L.); (S.T.)
| | - Marta Marszalek-Grabska
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology, Medical University, 20-090 Lublin, Poland;
| | - Magdalena Hubalewska-Mazgaj
- Department of Drug Addiction Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, 31-343 Krakow, Poland; (I.S.); (M.H.-M.); (M.F.)
| | | | - Jaroslaw Dudka
- Department of Toxicology, Medical University, 20-090 Lublin, Poland;
| | - Zbigniew Marzec
- Department of Food and Nutrition, Medical University, 20-093 Lublin, Poland;
| | - Małgorzata Filip
- Department of Drug Addiction Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, 31-343 Krakow, Poland; (I.S.); (M.H.-M.); (M.F.)
| | - Jolanta H. Kotlinska
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacodynamics, Medical University, 20-093 Lublin, Poland; (P.G.); (M.L.-M.); (E.G.-T.); (E.K.); (J.L.); (S.T.)
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7
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Altun B, Çok İ. Psychoactive Bath Salts and Neurotoxicity Risk. Turk J Pharm Sci 2020; 17:235-241. [PMID: 32454785 DOI: 10.4274/tjps.galenos.2018.40820] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2018] [Accepted: 12/06/2018] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Synthetic cathinones are new designer drugs that possess hallucinogenic and psychostimulant properties, and are designed to mimic the effects of illegal substances such as cocaine, amphetamines, and 3.4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (ecstasy) and to produce rewarding effects, circumventing existing laws and penalties. Synthetic cathinones, also referred to as 'bath salts', have become popular particularly among young people since the mid-2000s. Similar to other psychomotor stimulants, synthetic cathinones have the potential to increase monoamine concentration in the synaptic cleft by targeting the plasma membrane transporters of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin. Because of their structural similarities to amphetamines, it has been suggested that synthetic cathinones may have a neurotoxicity profile similar to that of their amphetamine congeners. Therefore, it has been hypothesized that synthetic cathinones may induce neurotoxicity on monoamine nerve endings in the striatum, hippocampus, and cortex. To date, with regard to synthetic cathinone neurotoxicity, parameters such as monoamine depletion, biosynthetic enzyme inhibition, cytotoxicity, generation of reactive oxygen species, pro-oxidation status, and the ability to induce neuroinflammation were investigated in both in vitro and in vivo experimental studies. Compared with amphetamines, synthetic cathinones appear to have more moderate effects than their amphetamine congeners in terms of neurotoxic effects. However, many synthetic cathinone users take these substances simultaneously with other substances such as benzodiazepines, amphetamines, ecstasy, tetrahydrocannabinol, and ethanol and this abuse can modify their neurotoxic effects. Hence, it is important to understand the underlying mechanism of early neurotoxic effects in case of polysubstance use. In this review, we aimed to present up-to-date information on the abuse potential of synthetic cathinones, their legal status, mechanism of action, and particularly their neurotoxic effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beril Altun
- Gazi University, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutical Toxicology, Ankara, Turkey
| | - İsmet Çok
- Gazi University, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutical Toxicology, Ankara, Turkey
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8
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Papaseit E, Pérez-Mañá C, de Sousa Fernandes Perna EB, Olesti E, Mateus J, Kuypers KP, Theunissen EL, Fonseca F, Torrens M, Ramaekers JG, de la Torre R, Farré M. Mephedrone and Alcohol Interactions in Humans. Front Pharmacol 2020; 10:1588. [PMID: 32063845 PMCID: PMC6999687 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2019.01588] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2019] [Accepted: 12/09/2019] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Mephedrone (4-MMC, mephedrone) is a synthetic cathinone derivative included in the class of new psychoactive substances. It is commonly used simultaneously with alcohol (ethanol). The aim of the present study was to evaluate the interactions on subjective, cardiovascular and hormone effects and pharmacokinetics between mephedrone and alcohol in humans. Eleven male volunteers participated as outpatients in four experimental sessions in a double-blind, randomized, cross-over, and placebo-controlled clinical trial. Participants received a single oral dose of 200 mg of mephedrone plus 0.8 g/kg of alcohol (combination condition); 200 mg of mephedrone plus placebo alcohol (mephedrone condition); placebo mephedrone plus 0.8 g/kg of ethanol (alcohol condition); and placebo mephedrone plus placebo alcohol (placebo condition). Outcome variables included physiological (blood pressure, heart rate, temperature, and pupil diameter), psychomotor (Maddox wing), subjective (visual analogue scales, Addiction Research Center Inventory 49 item short form, and Valoración de los Efectos Subjetivos de Sustancias con Potencial de Abuso questionnaire), and pharmacokinetic parameters (mephedrone and ethanol concentrations). The study was registered in ClinicalTrials.gov, number NCT02294266. The mephedrone and alcohol combination produced an increase in the cardiovascular effects of mephedrone and induced a more intense feeling of euphoria and well-being in comparison to the two drugs alone. Mephedrone reduced the sedative effects produced by alcohol. These results are similar to those obtained when other psychostimulants such as amphetamines and 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine are combined simultaneously with alcohol. The abuse liability of mephedrone combined with alcohol is greater than that induced by mephedrone alone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Esther Papaseit
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Hospital Universitari Germans Trias i Pujol (IGTP), Badalona, Spain.,Department of Pharmacology, Therapeutics and Toxicology and Department of Psychiatry and Forensic Medicine, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), Cerdanyola del Vallès, Spain
| | - Clara Pérez-Mañá
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Hospital Universitari Germans Trias i Pujol (IGTP), Badalona, Spain.,Department of Pharmacology, Therapeutics and Toxicology and Department of Psychiatry and Forensic Medicine, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), Cerdanyola del Vallès, Spain
| | | | - Eulalia Olesti
- Integrative Pharmacology and Systems Neuroscience Research Group, Neurosciences Research Program, IMIM-Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute, Parc de Salut Mar, Barcelona, Spain.,Department of Health and Life Sciences, Universitat Pompeu Fabra (CEXS-UPF), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Julian Mateus
- Integrative Pharmacology and Systems Neuroscience Research Group, Neurosciences Research Program, IMIM-Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute, Parc de Salut Mar, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Kim Pc Kuypers
- Department of Neuropsychology and Psychopharmacology, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
| | - Eef L Theunissen
- Department of Neuropsychology and Psychopharmacology, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
| | - Francina Fonseca
- Department of Pharmacology, Therapeutics and Toxicology and Department of Psychiatry and Forensic Medicine, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), Cerdanyola del Vallès, Spain.,Institut de Neuropsiquiatria i Adiccions, Addiction Unit and IMIM, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Marta Torrens
- Department of Pharmacology, Therapeutics and Toxicology and Department of Psychiatry and Forensic Medicine, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), Cerdanyola del Vallès, Spain.,Institut de Neuropsiquiatria i Adiccions, Addiction Unit and IMIM, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Jan G Ramaekers
- Department of Neuropsychology and Psychopharmacology, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
| | - Rafael de la Torre
- Integrative Pharmacology and Systems Neuroscience Research Group, Neurosciences Research Program, IMIM-Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute, Parc de Salut Mar, Barcelona, Spain.,Department of Health and Life Sciences, Universitat Pompeu Fabra (CEXS-UPF), Barcelona, Spain.,CIBER de Fisiopatología de la Obesidad y Nutrición (CB06/03), CIBEROBN, Santiago de Compostela, Spain
| | - Magí Farré
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Hospital Universitari Germans Trias i Pujol (IGTP), Badalona, Spain.,Department of Pharmacology, Therapeutics and Toxicology and Department of Psychiatry and Forensic Medicine, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), Cerdanyola del Vallès, Spain
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9
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The new psychoactive substance 3-methylmethcathinone (3-MMC or metaphedrone) induces oxidative stress, apoptosis, and autophagy in primary rat hepatocytes at human-relevant concentrations. Arch Toxicol 2019; 93:2617-2634. [PMID: 31468101 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-019-02539-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2019] [Accepted: 08/14/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
3-Methylmethcathinone (3-MMC or metaphedrone) has become one of the most popular recreational drugs worldwide after the ban of mephedrone, and was recently deemed responsible for several intoxications and deaths. This study aimed at assessing the hepatotoxicity of 3-MMC. For this purpose, Wistar rat hepatocytes were isolated by collagenase perfusion, cultured and exposed for 24 h at a concentration range varying from 31 nM to 10 mM 3-MMC. The modulatory effects of cytochrome P450 (CYP) inhibitors on 3-MMC hepatotoxicity were evaluated. 3-MMC-induced toxicity was perceived at the lysosome at lower concentrations (NOEC 312.5 µM), compared to mitochondria (NOEC 379.5 µM) and cytoplasmic membrane (NOEC 1.04 mM). Inhibition of CYP2D6 and CYP2E1 diminished 3-MMC cytotoxicity, yet for CYP2E1 inhibition this effect was only observed for concentrations up to 1.3 mM. A significant concentration-dependent increase of intracellular reactive species was observed from 10 μM 3-MMC on; a concentration-dependent decrease in antioxidant glutathione defences was also observed. At 10 μM, caspase-3, caspase-8, and caspase-9 activities were significantly elevated, corroborating the activation of both intrinsic and extrinsic apoptosis pathways. Nuclear morphology and formation of cytoplasmic acidic vacuoles suggest prevalence of necrosis and autophagy at concentrations higher than 10 μM. No significant alterations were observed in the mitochondrial membrane potential, but intracellular ATP significantly decreased at 100 μM. Our data point to a role of metabolism in the hepatotoxicity of 3-MMC, which seems to be triggered both by autophagic and apoptotic/necrotic mechanisms. This work is the first approach to better understand 3-MMC toxicology.
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10
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Leyrer-Jackson JM, Nagy EK, Olive MF. Cognitive deficits and neurotoxicity induced by synthetic cathinones: is there a role for neuroinflammation? Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2019; 236:1079-1095. [PMID: 30368582 PMCID: PMC6486871 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-018-5067-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2018] [Accepted: 10/03/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE The number of synthetic derivatives of cathinone, the primary psychoactive alkaloid found in Catha edulis (khat), has risen exponentially in the past decade. Synthetic cathinones (frequently referred to as "bath salts") produce adverse cognitive and behavioral sequelae, share similar pharmacological mechanisms of action with traditional psychostimulants, and may therefore trigger similar cellular events that give rise to neuroinflammation and neurotoxicity. OBJECTIVES In this review, we provide a brief overview of synthetic cathinones, followed by a summary of cognitive deficits in animals and humans that have been documented following acute or repeated exposure. We also summarize growing evidence from in vitro and in vivo studies for synthetic cathinone-induced neurotoxicity, and provide a working hypothetic model of potential cellular mechanisms. RESULTS Synthetic cathinones produce varying effects on markers of monoaminergic terminal function and can increase the formation of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species, induce apoptotic signaling, and cause neurodegeneration and cytotoxicity. We hypothesize that these effects result from biochemical events similar to those induced by traditional psychostimulants. However, empirical evidence for the ability of synthetic cathinones to induce neuroinflammatory processes is currently lacking. CONCLUSIONS Like their traditional psychostimulant counterparts, synthetic cathinones appear to induce neurocognitive dysfunction and cytotoxicity, which are dependent on drug type, dose, frequency, and time following exposure. However, additional studies on synthetic cathinone-induced neuroinflammation are clearly needed, as are investigations into the neurochemical and neuroimmune mechanisms underlying their neurotoxic effects. Such endeavors may lead to novel therapeutic avenues to promote recovery in habitual synthetic cathinone users.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - M. Foster Olive
- Correspondence to: M. Foster Olive, Ph.D. Department of Psychology, Arizona State University, 950 S. McAllister Ave. Tempe, AZ 85287 USA, Phone 1-480-727-9557, Fax 1-480-965-8544,
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11
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Benturquia N, Chevillard L, Poiré C, Roussel O, Cohier C, Declèves X, Laplanche JL, Etheve-Quelquejeu M, Chen H, Mégarbane B. Is the 3,4-methylendioxypyrovalerone/mephedrone combination responsible for enhanced stimulant effects? A rat study with investigation of the effect/concentration relationships. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2019; 236:891-901. [PMID: 29971461 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-018-4962-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2018] [Accepted: 06/27/2018] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE The use of synthetic cathinones as recreational drugs frequently sold in combination has been increasing exponentially. However, the consequences of combining cathinones on the resulting stimulant effects and the pharmacokinetics have been poorly investigated. OBJECTIVE AND METHODS To study 3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV; 3 mg/kg) and mephedrone (4-MMC; 30 mg/kg)-induced effects on rat locomotor activity and pharmacokinetics, administered alone or in combination by the intragastric route. The pharmacokinetic parameters were determined using non-compartmental analysis and the relationships between the locomotor activity and drug concentrations using sigmoidal Emax modeling. RESULTS Locomotor activity significantly increased during the first hour post-administration with the MDPV/4-MMC combination in comparison to MDPV (p < 0.001) and 4-MMC (p < 0.01) alone. The pharmacokinetic profile of MDPV, but not 4-MMC, was significantly modified with the combination resulting in decreases in Cmax (16.4 ± 5.5 versus 62.2 ± 14.2 μg/L, p < 0.05) and AUC0 → ∞ (708 ± 91 versus 3316 ± 682 μg/L/min, p < 0.01) and increases in V/F (582.6 ± 136.8 versus 115.9 ± 42.7 L/kg, p < 0.05) and Cl/F (4.6 ± 0.7 versus 1.2 ± 0.4 L/kg/min, p < 0.01) in comparison to MDPV alone. The sigmoidal Emax model fitted the observed data well; MDPV being markedly more potent than 4-MMC (EC50, 0.043 versus 0.7 μmol/L). The enhancing factor representing the MDPV contribution to the alteration in the relationships between locomotor activity and 4-MMC concentrations was 0.3. CONCLUSION An MDPV/4-MMC combination results in enhanced stimulant effects in the rat, despite significant reduction in MDPV bioavailability. Enhanced effects could be explained by increased MDPV distribution and/or possible complementation at the brain dopaminergic targets. However, the exact consequences of the MDPV/4-MMC combination in humans remain to be clarified.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nadia Benturquia
- Inserm, UMR-S 1144, Paris-Descartes and Paris-Diderot Universities, Paris, France
| | - Lucie Chevillard
- Inserm, UMR-S 1144, Paris-Descartes and Paris-Diderot Universities, Paris, France
| | - Christophe Poiré
- Inserm, UMR-S 1144, Paris-Descartes and Paris-Diderot Universities, Paris, France.,CNRS, UMR8601, Laboratory of Chemistry and Pharmacological and Toxicological Biochemistry, CBNIT, Paris-Descartes University, Paris, France
| | - Olivier Roussel
- Inserm, UMR-S 1144, Paris-Descartes and Paris-Diderot Universities, Paris, France.,Toxicology Department, Institut de Recherche Criminelle de la Gendarmerie Nationale, Rosny sous-Bois, France
| | - Camille Cohier
- Inserm, UMR-S 1144, Paris-Descartes and Paris-Diderot Universities, Paris, France.,Toxicology Department, Institut de Recherche Criminelle de la Gendarmerie Nationale, Rosny sous-Bois, France
| | - Xavier Declèves
- Inserm, UMR-S 1144, Paris-Descartes and Paris-Diderot Universities, Paris, France
| | - Jean-Louis Laplanche
- Inserm, UMR-S 1144, Paris-Descartes and Paris-Diderot Universities, Paris, France
| | - Mélanie Etheve-Quelquejeu
- CNRS, UMR8601, Laboratory of Chemistry and Pharmacological and Toxicological Biochemistry, CBNIT, Paris-Descartes University, Paris, France
| | - Huixiong Chen
- CNRS, UMR8601, Laboratory of Chemistry and Pharmacological and Toxicological Biochemistry, CBNIT, Paris-Descartes University, Paris, France
| | - Bruno Mégarbane
- Inserm, UMR-S 1144, Paris-Descartes and Paris-Diderot Universities, Paris, France. .,Department of Medical and Toxicological Critical Care, Lariboisière Hospital, Paris, France.
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12
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Bath salts and polyconsumption: in search of drug-drug interactions. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2019; 236:1001-1014. [PMID: 30911791 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-019-05213-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2018] [Accepted: 03/01/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND RATIONALE Polydrug use is a widespread phenomenon, especially among adolescents and young adults. Synthetic cathinones are frequently consumed in combination with other drugs of abuse. However, there is very little information regarding the consequences of this specific consumption pattern. OBJECTIVES The aim of this review is to introduce this topic and highlight the gaps in the existing literature. In three different sections, we focus on specific interactions of synthetic cathinones with alcohol, cannabinoids, and the stimulants nicotine and cocaine. We then dedicate a section to the existence of sex and gender differences in the effects of synthetic cathinones and the long-term psychophysiological consequences of adolescent and prenatal exposure to these drugs. MAJOR FINDINGS Epidemiological studies, case reports, and results obtained in animal models point to the existence of pharmacological and pharmacokinetic interactions between synthetic cathinones and other drugs of abuse. This pattern of polyconsumption can cause the potentiation of negative effects, and the dissociation between objective and subjective effects can increase the combined use of the drugs and the risk of toxicity leading to serious health problems. Certain animal studies indicate a higher vulnerability and effect of cathinones in females. In humans, most of the users are men and case reports show long-term psychotic symptoms after repeated use. CONCLUSIONS The co-use of synthetic cathinones and the other drugs of abuse analyzed indicates potentiation of diverse effects including dependence and addiction, neurotoxicity, and impaired cognition and emotional responses. The motivations for and effects of synthetic cathinone use appear to be influenced by sex/gender. The long-term consequences of their use by adolescents and pregnant women deserve further investigation.
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13
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Simmons SJ, Leyrer-Jackson JM, Oliver CF, Hicks C, Muschamp JW, Rawls SM, Olive MF. DARK Classics in Chemical Neuroscience: Cathinone-Derived Psychostimulants. ACS Chem Neurosci 2018; 9:2379-2394. [PMID: 29714473 DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.8b00147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Cathinone is a plant alkaloid found in khat leaves of perennial shrubs grown in East Africa. Similar to cocaine, cathinone elicits psychostimulant effects which are in part attributed to its amphetamine-like structure. Around 2010, home laboratories began altering the parent structure of cathinone to synthesize derivatives with mechanisms of action, potencies, and pharmacokinetics permitting high abuse potential and toxicity. These "synthetic cathinones" include 4-methylmethcathinone (mephedrone), 3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV), and the empathogenic agent 3,4-methylenedioxymethcathinone (methylone) which collectively gained international popularity following aggressive online marketing as well as availability in various retail outlets. Case reports made clear the health risks associated with these agents and, in 2012, the Drug Enforcement Agency of the United States placed a series of synthetic cathinones on Schedule I under emergency order. Mechanistically, cathinone and synthetic derivatives work by augmenting monoamine transmission through release facilitation and/or presynaptic transport inhibition. Animal studies confirm the rewarding and reinforcing properties of synthetic cathinones by utilizing self-administration, place conditioning, and intracranial self-stimulation assays and additionally show persistent neuropathological features which demonstrate a clear need to better understand this class of drugs. This Review will thus detail (i) historical context of cathinone use and the rise of "dark" synthetic derivatives, (ii) structural features and mechanisms of synthetic cathinones, (iii) behavioral effects observed clinically and in animals under controlled laboratory conditions, and (iv) neurotransmitters and circuits that may be targeted to manage synthetic cathinone abuse in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven J. Simmons
- Center for Substance Abuse Research (CSAR), Lewis Katz School of Medicine at Temple University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19140, United States
| | | | - Chicora F. Oliver
- Center for Substance Abuse Research (CSAR), Lewis Katz School of Medicine at Temple University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19140, United States
| | - Callum Hicks
- Center for Substance Abuse Research (CSAR), Lewis Katz School of Medicine at Temple University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19140, United States
| | - John W. Muschamp
- Center for Substance Abuse Research (CSAR), Lewis Katz School of Medicine at Temple University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19140, United States
| | - Scott M. Rawls
- Center for Substance Abuse Research (CSAR), Lewis Katz School of Medicine at Temple University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19140, United States
| | - M. Foster Olive
- Department of Psychology, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona 85281, United States
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14
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Siivonen MS, de Miguel E, Aaltio J, Manner AK, Vahermo M, Yli-Kauhaluoma J, Linden AM, Aitta-Aho T, Korpi ER. Conditioned Reward of Opioids, but not Psychostimulants, is Impaired in GABA-A Receptor δ Subunit Knockout Mice. Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol 2018; 123:558-566. [PMID: 29781560 DOI: 10.1111/bcpt.13043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2018] [Accepted: 05/07/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Extrasynaptic δ subunit-containing γ-aminobutyric acid type A receptors (δ-GABAA Rs) are emerging as targets for a number of neuropsychopharmacological drugs, including the direct GABA site agonist gaboxadol and neuroactive steroids. Among other regions, these δ-GABAA Rs are functionally expressed in the ventral tegmental area (VTA), the cell body region of mesocorticolimbic dopamine (DA) system important for motivated behaviours, and in the target region, the nucleus accumbens. Gaboxadol and neurosteroids induce VTA DA neuron plasticity ex vivo, by inhibiting the VTA GABA neurons, and aversive place conditioning, which are absent in the δ-GABAA R knockout mice (δ-KO). It is not known whether δ-GABAA Rs are important for the effects of other drugs, such as opioids (that also inhibit GABA neurons) and stimulants (that primarily elevate monoamine levels). Here, we used δ-KO mice and conditioned place preference (CPP) test to study the rewarding effects of morphine (20 mg/kg), methamphetamine (1 mg/kg) and mephedrone (5 mg/kg). Morphine-induced nociception was also assessed using tail-flick and hot-plate tests. We found that the δ-KO mice failed to express morphine-induced CPP, but that they were more sensitive to morphine-induced analgesia in the tail-flick test. In contrast, stimulant-induced CPP in the δ-KO mice was similar to that in the wild-type controls. Thus, the conditioned rewarding effect by opioids, but not that of stimulants, was impaired in the absence of δ-GABAA Rs. Further studies are warranted to assess the potential of δ-GABAA R antagonists as possible targets for reducing morphine reward and potentiating morphine analgesia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Milo S Siivonen
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Elena de Miguel
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Juho Aaltio
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Aino K Manner
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Mikko Vahermo
- Drug Discovery Program, Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Jari Yli-Kauhaluoma
- Drug Discovery Program, Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Anni-Maija Linden
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Teemu Aitta-Aho
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Esa R Korpi
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
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15
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Exposure to mephedrone during gestation increases the risk of stillbirth and induces hippocampal neurotoxicity in mice offspring. Neurotoxicol Teratol 2018; 67:10-17. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ntt.2018.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2017] [Revised: 02/28/2018] [Accepted: 03/01/2018] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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16
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The Effects of Exposure to Mephedrone During Adolescence on Brain Neurotransmission and Neurotoxicity in Adult Rats. Neurotox Res 2018; 34:525-537. [PMID: 29713996 PMCID: PMC6154178 DOI: 10.1007/s12640-018-9908-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2017] [Revised: 03/09/2018] [Accepted: 04/18/2018] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
According to the European Drug Report (2016), the use of synthetic cathinones, such as mephedrone, among young people has rapidly increased in the last years. Studies in humans indicate that psychostimulant drug use in adolescence increases risk of drug abuse in adulthood. Mephedrone by its interaction with transporters for dopamine (DAT) and serotonin (SERT) stimulates their release to the synaptic cleft. In animal studies, high repeated doses of mephedrone given to adolescent but not adult mice or rats induced toxic changes in 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) neurons. The aim of our study was to investigate the effects of mephedrone given in adolescence on brain neurotransmission and possible neuronal injury in adult rats. Adolescent male rats were given mephedrone (5 mg/kg) for 8 days. In vivo microdialysis in adult rats showed an increase in dopamine (DA), 5-HT, and glutamate release in the nucleus accumbens and frontal cortex but not in the striatum in response to challenge dose in animals pretreated with mephedrone in adolescence. The 5-HT and 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid contents decreased in the striatum and nucleus accumbens while DA turnover rates were decreased in the striatum and nucleus accumbens. The oxidative damage of DNA assessed with the alkaline comet assay was found in the cortex of adult rats. Therefore, the administration of repeated low doses of mephedrone during adolescence does not seem to induce injury to 5-HT and DA neurons. The oxidative stress seems to be responsible for possible damage of cortical cell bodies which causes maladaptive changes in serotonergic and dopaminergic neurons.
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17
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Effect of the combination of mephedrone plus ethanol on serotonin and dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens and medial prefrontal cortex of awake rats. Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch Pharmacol 2018; 391:247-254. [PMID: 29349706 DOI: 10.1007/s00210-018-1464-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2017] [Accepted: 01/09/2018] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Cathinones, such as mephedrone (Meph), are often co-abused with alcoholic drinks. In the present study, we investigated the combined effects of Meph plus ethanol (EtOH) on neurotransmitter release in the nucleus accumbens (NAc) and the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC). A guide canula was stereotaxically implanted into either the NAc or the mPFC of male Sprague-Dawley rats. Seven days after surgery, a microdialysis probe was inserted and rats were administered saline, EtOH (1 g/kg, i.p.), Meph (25 mg/kg, s.c.), or their combination, and dialysates were collected. Serotonin (5-HT), dopamine (DA), and their metabolites (5-HIAA, DOPAC and HVA) were determined through high-pressure liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry. 5-HT and DA peaked 40 min after Meph administration (with or without EtOH co-treatment) in both areas. EtOH combined with Meph increased the 5-HT release compared with the rats receiving Meph alone (85% in NAc, 65% in mPFC), although the overall change in the area under the curve only reached statistical significance in the NAc. In mPFC, the increased release of 5-HT lasted longer in the combination than that in the Meph group. Moreover, EtOH potentiated the psychostimulant effect of Meph measured as a locomotor activity. Given that both 5-HT and DA are also related with reward and impulsivity, the observed effects point to an increased risk of abuse liability when combining Meph with EtOH compared with consuming these drugs alone.
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18
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Joanna L, Sylwia T, Magdalena G, Piotr L, Ewa K, Jolanta OG, Malgorzata D, Malgorzata L, Kotlinska JH. Mephedrone exposure in adolescent rats alters the rewarding effect of morphine in adults. Eur J Pharmacol 2017; 810:63-69. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2017.06.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2016] [Revised: 05/25/2017] [Accepted: 06/07/2017] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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19
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20
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Guirguis A, Corkery JM, Stair JL, Kirton SB, Zloh M, Schifano F. Intended and unintended use of cathinone mixtures. Hum Psychopharmacol 2017; 32. [PMID: 28657191 DOI: 10.1002/hup.2598] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2016] [Revised: 03/22/2017] [Accepted: 03/23/2017] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Cathinones are one of the most popular categories of new psychoactive substances (NPS) consumed. Cathinones have different pharmacological activities and receptor selectivity for monoamine transporters based on their chemical structures. They are incorporated into NPS mixtures and used with other NPS or 'traditional' drugs. Cathinone use represents significant health risks to individuals and is a public health burden. METHODS Evidence of poly-NPS use with cathinones, seizure information, and literature analyses results on NPS mixtures was systematically gathered from online database sources, including Google Scholar, Scopus, Bluelight, and Drugs-Forum. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Results highlight the prevalence of NPS with low purity, incorporation of cathinones into NPS mixtures since 2008, and multiple members of the cathinone family being present in individual UK-seized samples. Cathinones were identified as adulterants in NPS marketed as being pure NPS, drugs of abuse, branded products, herbal blends, and products labelled "not for human consumption." Toxicity resulting from cathinone mixtures is unpredictable because key attributes remain largely unknown. Symptoms of intoxication include neuro-psychological, psychiatric, and metabolic symptoms. Proposed treatment includes holistic approaches involving psychosocial, psychiatric and pharmacological interventions. CONCLUSION Raising awareness of NPS, education, and training of health care professionals are paramount in reducing harms related to cathinone use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amira Guirguis
- School of Life and Medical Sciences, Department of Pharmacy, Pharmacology & Postgraduate Medicine, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, UK.,Psychopharmaology, Drug Misuse, & Novel Psychoactive Substances Research Unit, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, UK
| | - John Martin Corkery
- School of Life and Medical Sciences, Department of Pharmacy, Pharmacology & Postgraduate Medicine, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, UK.,Psychopharmaology, Drug Misuse, & Novel Psychoactive Substances Research Unit, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, UK
| | - Jacqueline Leslie Stair
- School of Life and Medical Sciences, Department of Pharmacy, Pharmacology & Postgraduate Medicine, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, UK.,Psychopharmaology, Drug Misuse, & Novel Psychoactive Substances Research Unit, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, UK
| | - Stewart Brian Kirton
- School of Life and Medical Sciences, Department of Pharmacy, Pharmacology & Postgraduate Medicine, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, UK.,Psychopharmaology, Drug Misuse, & Novel Psychoactive Substances Research Unit, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, UK
| | - Mire Zloh
- School of Life and Medical Sciences, Department of Pharmacy, Pharmacology & Postgraduate Medicine, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, UK.,Psychopharmaology, Drug Misuse, & Novel Psychoactive Substances Research Unit, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, UK
| | - Fabrizio Schifano
- School of Life and Medical Sciences, Department of Pharmacy, Pharmacology & Postgraduate Medicine, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, UK.,Psychopharmaology, Drug Misuse, & Novel Psychoactive Substances Research Unit, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, UK
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21
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Shortall SE, Green AR, Fone KC, King MV. Caffeine alters the behavioural and body temperature responses to mephedrone without causing long-term neurotoxicity in rats. J Psychopharmacol 2016; 30:698-706. [PMID: 27257032 DOI: 10.1177/0269881116650408] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Administration of caffeine with 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) alters the pharmacological properties of MDMA in rats. The current study examined whether caffeine alters the behavioural and neurochemical effects of mephedrone, which has similar psychoactive effects to MDMA. Rats received either saline, mephedrone (10 mg/kg), caffeine (10 mg/kg) or combined caffeine and mephedrone intraperitoneally twice weekly on consecutive days for three weeks. Locomotor activity (days 1 and 16), novel object discrimination (NOD, day 2), elevated plus maze (EPM) exploration (day 8), rectal temperature changes (day 9) and pre-pulse inhibition (PPI) of acoustic startle response (day 15) were assessed. Seven days after the final injection, brain regions were collected for the measurement of 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT), dopamine and their metabolites. Combined caffeine and mephedrone further enhanced the locomotor response observed following either drug administered alone, and converted mephedrone-induced hypothermia to hyperthermia. Co-administration also abolished mephedrone-induced anxiogenic response on the EPM, but had no effect on NOD or PPI. Importantly, no long-term neurotoxicity was detected following repeated mephedrone alone or when co-administered with caffeine. In conclusion, the study suggests a potentially dangerous effect of concomitant caffeine and mephedrone, and highlights the importance of taking polydrug use into consideration when investigating the acute adverse effect profile of popular recreational drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sinead E Shortall
- School of Life Sciences, Medical School, Queen's Medical Centre, The University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK
| | - A Richard Green
- School of Life Sciences, Medical School, Queen's Medical Centre, The University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK
| | - Kevin Cf Fone
- School of Life Sciences, Medical School, Queen's Medical Centre, The University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK
| | - Madeleine V King
- School of Life Sciences, Medical School, Queen's Medical Centre, The University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK
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22
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Valente MJ, Araújo AM, Bastos MDL, Fernandes E, Carvalho F, Guedes de Pinho P, Carvalho M. Editor's Highlight: Characterization of Hepatotoxicity Mechanisms Triggered by Designer Cathinone Drugs (β-Keto Amphetamines). Toxicol Sci 2016; 153:89-102. [PMID: 27255387 DOI: 10.1093/toxsci/kfw105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
The use of cathinone designer drugs in recreational settings has been associated with severe toxic effects, including liver damage. The precise mechanisms by which cathinones induce hepatotoxicity and whether they act by common pathways remain to be elucidated. Herein, we assessed the toxicity of the cathinones methylone, pentedrone, 3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV) and 4-methylethcathinone (4-MEC) in primary rat hepatocytes (PRH) and HepaRG cells, and compared with that of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA). MDPV and pentedrone were significantly more toxic than MDMA, while methylone was the least cytotoxic compound. Importantly, PRH revealed to be the most sensitive experimental model and was thus used to explore the mechanisms underlying the observed toxicity. All drugs elicited the formation of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (ROS and RNS), but more markedly for methylone, pentedrone and 4-MEC. GSH depletion was also a common effect at the highest concentration tested, whereas only MDPV and pentedrone caused a significant decrease in ATP levels. The antioxidants ascorbic acid or N-acetyl-L-cysteine partially attenuated the observed cell death. All cathinones triggered significant caspase activation and apoptosis, which was partially reversed by the caspase inhibitor Ac-LETD-CHO. In conclusion, the present data shows that (1) cathinones induce in vitro hepatotoxic effects that vary in magnitude among the different analogues, (2) oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction play a role in cathinones-induced hepatic injury, and (3) apoptosis appears to be an important pathway of cell death elicited by these novel drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria João Valente
- *UCIBIO, REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal;
| | - Ana Margarida Araújo
- *UCIBIO, REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Maria de Lourdes Bastos
- *UCIBIO, REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Eduarda Fernandes
- UCIBIO, REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Applied Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Félix Carvalho
- *UCIBIO, REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Paula Guedes de Pinho
- *UCIBIO, REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Márcia Carvalho
- *UCIBIO, REQUIMTE, Laboratory of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal; FP-ENAS, CEBIMED, Fundação Ensino e Cultura Fernando Pessoa, Porto, Portugal
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