Structure-toxicity relationship of cefoperazone and its impurities to developing zebrafish by transcriptome and Raman analysis

Developmental adcyap1b loss leads to hemorrhage, disrupted hemostasis, and a blood coagulation cascade in zebrafish

BACKGROUND

Pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide is a neuropeptide with diverse roles in biological processes. Its involvement in the blood coagulation cascade is unclear.

OBJECTIVES

This study unraveled adcyap1b's role in blood coagulation using clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats/CRISPR-associated protein 9 in zebrafish. Effects were validated via adcyap1b knockdown. Gene expression changes in adcyap1b mutants were explored, linking them to clotting disorders. An analysis of proca gene splicing illuminated its role in adcyap1b-related anticoagulation deficiencies.

METHODS

Zebrafish were genetically modified using clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats/CRISPR-associated protein 9 to induce adcyap1b knockout. Morpholino-mediated gene knockdown was employed for validation. Expression levels of coagulation factors, anticoagulant proteins, and fibrinolytic system genes were assessed in adcyap1b mutant zebrafish. Alternative splicing of proca gene was analyzed.

RESULTS

Adcyap1b mutant zebrafish exhibited severe hemorrhage, clotting disorders, and disrupted blood coagulation. Morpholino-mediated knockdown replicated observed phenotypes. Downregulation in transcripts related to coagulation factors V and IX, anticoagulation protein C, and plasminogen was observed. Abnormal alternative splicing of the proca gene was identified, providing a mechanistic explanation for anticoagulation system deficiencies.

CONCLUSION

Adcyap1b plays a crucial role in maintaining zebrafish blood coagulation and hemostasis. Its influence extends to the regulation of procoagulant and anticoagulant pathways, with abnormal alternative splicing contributing to observed deficiencies. These findings unveil a novel aspect of adcyap1b function, offering potential insights into similar processes in mammalian systems.

Preparation of bacterial cellulose-based antibacterial membranes with prolonged release of drugs: Emphasis on the chemical structure of drugs

Bacterial cellulose (BC) based antibacterial membranes were synthesized, including BC-cefoperazone (BC-CEF) and BC-cefoperazone sodium (BC-CEF/Na). To examine the various drug loading processes, the structure, morphology, and physical-chemical characteristics of membranes were evaluated. Results demonstrated that both types of medicines were successfully absorbed into membranes, and membranes displayed identical morphology and FT-IR peaks. BC-CEF showed lower crystalline of XRD, which was likely caused by the combination of carboxyl and hydroxyl. However, there were no drug peaks seen in the membranes, indicating no alteration of ribbon crystallization of BC. Two types of antibacterial membranes have significantly distinct drug-loading traits and drug-releasing profiles. The drug loading rate of CEF (46.4 mg/g) was significantly greater than CEF/Na (30.3 mg/g). The cumulative drug-releasing profiles showed that only BC-CEF continues to release drugs for a lengthy period up to 48 h and exhibited good antimicrobial activity against S. aureus and E. coli until 48 h. The cytotoxicity assay demonstrated the great biocompatibility of all membranes. Findings indicated that BC-CEF has the potential use as a prolonged biocide in the biomedical. The idea that BC membranes can naturally incorporate the carboxyl groups from antibiotics is also innovative and can be useful in developing of drug delivery systems.

Quality control and consistency evaluation of ceftriaxone sodium for injection

Ceftriaxone sodium for injection is an antibiotic used clinically. Here, we developed a strategy for evaluating the consistency of ceftriaxone sodium for injection. Comparison of the quality of the generic and original raw materials, and analysis of the production process revealed that the quality of the ceftriaxone sodium raw material is the most important factor affecting the quality of preparation, while the ceftriaxone sodium crystallization process is the key factor affecting the quality of raw materials. The solution clarity of the formulation, another key aspect, was addressed by controlling the leachable components found in the rubber closures used in the packaging. The time to achieve therapeutic efficacy of the preparation could be preliminarily evaluated by evaluating the rate of salt formation and the protein binding rate. Finally, the results of the tests (including water, pH, impurity profile and solution clarity) and assay were compared with the original preparation. On this basis, the critical quality attributes (CQAs) that reflect the quality of the product could be determined and a strategy for evaluating ceftriaxone sodium for injection was developed.

The comparative analysis of gastrointestinal toxicity of azithromycin and 3'-decladinosyl azithromycin on zebrafish larvae

The most commonly reported side effect of azithromycin is gastrointestinal (GI) disorders, and the main acid degradation product is 3'-Decladinosyl azithromycin (impurity J). We aimed to compare the GI toxicity of azithromycin and impurity J on zebrafish larvae and investigate the mechanism causing the differential GI toxicity. Results of our study showed that the GI toxicity induced by impurity J was higher than that of azithromycin in zebrafish larvae, and the effects of impurity J on transcription in the digestive system of zebrafish larvae were significantly stronger than those of azithromycin. Additionally, impurity J exerts stronger cytotoxic effects on GES-1 cells than azithromycin. Simultaneously, impurity J significantly increased ghsrb levels in the zebrafish intestinal tract and ghsr levels in human GES-1 cells compared to azithromycin, and ghsr overexpression significantly reduced cell viability, indicating that GI toxicity induced by azithromycin and impurity J may be correlated with ghsr overexpression induced by the two compounds. Meanwhile, molecular docking analysis showed that the highest -CDOCKER interaction energy scores with the zebrafish GHSRb or human GHSR protein might reflect the effect of azithromycin and impurity J on the expression of zebrafish ghsrb or human ghsr. Thus, our results suggest that impurity J has higher GI toxicity than azithromycin due to its greater ability to elevate ghsrb expression in zebrafish intestinal tract.

Systems assessment of statins hazard: Integrating in silico prediction, developmental toxicity profile and transcriptomics in zebrafish

Statins are prescribed widely as lipid-lowering agents. However, statins are associated with an increased harmful risk on public health and the ecosystem. Little is known about statins' toxicity on biological development and the underlying molecular mechanisms. We exposed zebrafish embryos to a series of statins to evaluate their development toxicity. Statins-induced embryonic developmental defects in a concentration-dependent manner. 72 h LC₅₀ values for lovastatin, simvastatin, fluvastatin, atorvastatin, rosuvastatin, and pravastatin were 0.01 μM, 0.04 μM, 1.93 μM, 37.28 μM, 79.29 μM, and 2170 μM, respectively. Moreover, the expression of genes involved in heart contraction, calcium ion binding, transcription factors, nucleus, and G protein-coupled receptor signaling pathway was altered by statins. The early growth response gene (egr4) and transcription factor genes (fosab and fosb) were screened as potential toxicity targets due to their significant upregulation based on protein-protein interaction (PPI) and drug-gene interaction network analysis. Finally, the ecotoxicity profile of statins was predicted by in silico method, and statins were high or moderate risk to aquatic organisms. We provide a systems toxicology strategy to explore the toxicity of statins and illustrate the potential mechanisms of action.

A Rapid Assessment Model for Liver Toxicity of Macrolides and an Integrative Evaluation for Azithromycin Impurities

Impurities in pharmaceuticals of potentially hazardous materials may cause drug safety problems. Macrolide antibiotic preparations include active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) and different types of impurities with similar structures, and the amount of these impurities is usually very low and difficult to be separated for toxicity evaluation. Our previous study indicated that hepatotoxicity induced by macrolides was correlated with c-fos overexpression. Here, we report an assessment of macrolide-related liver toxicity by ADMET prediction, molecular docking, structure–toxicity relationship, and experimental verification via detection of the c-fos gene expression in liver cells. The results showed that a rapid assessment model for the prediction of hepatotoxicity of macrolide antibiotics could be established by calculation of the -CDOCKER interaction energy score with the FosB/JunD bZIP domain and then confirmed by the detection of the c-fos gene expression in L02 cells. Telithromycin, a positive compound of liver toxicity, was used to verify the correctness of the model through comparative analysis of liver toxicity in zebrafish and cytotoxicity in L02 cells exposed to telithromycin and azithromycin. The prediction interval (48.1∼53.1) for quantitative hepatotoxicity in the model was calculated from the docking scores of seven macrolide antibiotics commonly used in clinics. We performed the prediction interval to virtual screening of azithromycin impurities with high hepatotoxicity and then experimentally confirmed by liver toxicity in zebrafish and c-fos gene expression. Simultaneously, we found the hepatotoxicity of azithromycin impurities may be related to the charge of nitrogen (N) atoms on the side chain group at the C5 position via structure–toxicity relationship of azithromycin impurities with different structures. This study provides a theoretical basis for improvement of the quality of macrolide antibiotics.

Hazard assessment of beta-lactams: Integrating in silico and QSTR approaches with in vivo zebrafish embryo toxicity testing

Antibiotics have emerged as a well-known representative of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) by causing public health and environmental problems due to their potential toxicity. β-lactams are the most commonly used antibiotics in the world. This study used zebrafish embryos to evaluate the toxicity of β-lactams. The results showed that 23 β-lactam compounds induced malformation and death in a concentration-response manner. Moreover, this study established and validated quantitative structure-toxicity relationship (QSTR) models for the toxicity of β-lactams in zebrafish. These models performed well and fast in the prediction of the acute toxicity of β-lactams. Structural interpretation indicated that the β-lactam ring, the thiazolidine/dihydrothiazine rings, the side chains, and spatial configuration are the main factors responsible for the toxicity of β-lactams. The results from our previous studies and this study also revealed that the potential biological risks caused by β-lactams and their degradation products could not be ignored. This study provided important data for further environmental risk assessment of β-lactams and regulatory purposes.

In vivo and in silico evaluations of survival and cardiac developmental toxicity of quinolone antibiotics in zebrafish embryos (Danio rerio)

Quinolones are ranked as the second most commonly used class of antibiotics in China, despite their adverse clinical and environmental effects. However, information on their cardiac developmental toxicity to zebrafish is limited. This study investigates the relationships between different quinolone structures and toxicity in zebrafish embryos using in vivo and in silico methods. All of the experimentally tested quinolones show cardiac developmental toxicity potential and present mortality and teratogenic effects in a dose-dependent manner. Theoretically, the acute toxicity values predicted using quantitative structure-toxicity relationship (QSTR) modeling based on previously reported LC₅₀ values are in good agreement with the in vivo results. Further investigation demonstrates that the hormetic concentration response of some quinolones may be related to methylation on the piperazine ring at the C-7 position. The amino group at the C-5 position, the methylated or ethylated piperazine group at the C-7 position, halogens at the C-8 position and a cyclopropyl ring at N1 position may be responsible for cardiac developmental toxicity. In terms of survival (key ecological endpoint), the naridine ring is more toxic than the quinoline ring. This combined approach can predict the acute and cardiac developmental toxicity of other quinolones and impurities.

In silico ADME and Toxicity Prediction of Ceftazidime and Its Impurities

To improve the quality control of drugs, we predicted the absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion, and toxicity (ADMET) of ceftazidime (CAZ) and its impurities via in silico methods. We used three types of quantitative structure-activity relationship and docking software for precise prediction: Discovery Studio 4.0, OECD QSAR Toolbox 4.1, Toxtree, and the pkCSM approach. The pharmacokinetics and toxicity of ceftazidime and impurity A (Δ-2-CAZ) are similar. The biological properties of impurity B (CAZ E-isomer) are different from CAZ. Therefore, we focused on drug stability to analyze impurity B. Impurities D and I have strong lipophilicity, good intestinal absorption, and poor excretion in the body. Impurity D is particularly neurotoxic and genotoxic. It is important to control the content of impurity D. The toxicity of impurity F is low, but the toxicity is enhanced when it becomes the C-3 side chain of CAZ and forms a quaternary amine group. We conclude that the beta-lactam ring of nucleus, the quaternary amine group at the C-3 side chain, and the acetates at the C-7 side chain of CAZ are the main toxic functional groups. Impurities B and D may be the genetic impurity in CAZ and may also have neurotoxicity. This in silico approach can predict the toxicity of other cephalosporins and impurities.

Geraniol and linalool anticandidal activity, genotoxic potential and embryotoxic effect on zebrafish

Aim: Geraniol and linalool are major constituents of the essential oils of medicinal plants. Materials & methods: Antifungal activity of geraniol and linalool were evaluated against five Candida species. The genotoxicity of these compounds was evaluated by the cytokinesis-block micronucleus test, and the embryotoxic assays use zebrafish model. Results: Geraniol and linalool inhibited Candida growth, but geraniol was more effective. The geraniol at concentration of 800 μg/ml and the linalool at concentration of 125 μg/ml significantly increased chromosome damage. Geraniol was more toxic to zebrafish embryo than linalool: LC50 values were 31.3 and 193.3 μg/ml, respectively. Conclusion: Geraniol and linalool have anticandidal activity, but they also exert genotoxic and embryotoxic effects at the highest tested concentrations.

Neurobehavioral Effects of Cephalosporins: Assessment of Locomotors Activity, Motor and Sensory Development in Zebrafish

Most third- and fourth-generation cephalosporins, such as cefotaxime, cefmenoxime, cefepime, and cefpirome, contain an aminothiazoyl ring at the C-7 position. Drug impurity, which may be produced either during synthesis or upon degradation, can induce adverse effects. Various reports have indicated that neurotoxicity is a side effect of cephalosporin. In this study, we developed methods for assessing the free-swimming activities and behaviors in zebrafish larvae in response to continuous darkness and stimulation of light-to-dark photoperiod transition by chemical treatments. We also performed transcriptome analysis to identify differentially expressed genes (DEGs). Gene ontology analysis revealed that various processes related to nervous system development were significantly enriched by DEGs. We integrated 16 DEGs with protein–protein interaction networks and identified that neuroactive ligand–receptor interaction [e.g., λ-aminobutyric acid and glutamate receptor, metabotropic 1a (GRM1A)] pathway was regulated by the compounds. Our findings suggested that neurobehavioral effects mainly depend on the mother nucleus structure 7-aminocephalosporanic acid and the substitution at the C-3 position. In addition, gad2, or111-4, or126-3, grm1a, opn8c, or111-5, or113-2, and or118-3 may potentially be utilized as novel biomarkers for this class of cephalosporins, which causes neurotoxicity. This study provides neurological behavior, transcriptome, and docking information that could be used in further investigations of the structures and developmental neurotoxicity relationship of chemicals.