Non-targeted and targeted analysis of wild toxic and edible mushrooms using gas chromatography–ion trap mass spectrometry

GC/MS and 2D NMR-based approach to evaluate the chemical profile of hydroalcoholic extract from Agaricus blazei Murill and its anti-inflammatory effect on human neutrophils

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Agaricus blazei Murill (AbM) is one of the main mushrooms used for medicinal purposes. The use of AbM in the preparation of teas is widespread mainly in Asian countries, while in Brazil it is used as a functional food to combat inflammatory diseases and cancer.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The main focus of this study was the characterization of the chemical profile of the hydroalcoholic extract of Agaricus blazei Murill (AbE), as well as the evaluation of its cytotoxic and anti-inflammatory potential using human neutrophils.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The extract was prepared by dynamic maceration using a mixture of ethanol and water (70/30, v v-1) as solvent. The chemical profile characterization was carried out by 2D NMR and GC-MS techniques. The cytotoxicity of AbE was evaluated through studies of hemolytic potential, cell viability and membrane integrity. The anti-inflammatory activity was analyzed by a PMA-induced neutrophil degranulation assay.

RESULTS

Chemical analysis of AbE revealed the presence of 28 metabolites in its composition, with mannitol as the major compound. AbE at 1-200 μg mL-1 and mannitol at 4-160 μg mL-1, showed low hemolytic and cytotoxic potential against human red blood cells and neutrophils. Furthermore, both were able to significantly reduce the release of myeloperoxidase.

CONCLUSIONS

These results indicate that AbE is a promising natural product to be incorporated into pharmaceutical dosage forms intended for the adjuvant treatment of inflammatory diseases.

Identification of matB used as an endogenous reference gene for the qualitative and real‐time quantitative polymerase chain reaction detection of Lentinus edodes

Lentinus edodes is a fungus with rich nutritional value and good medicinal value and has accordingly become a substitute for other expensive wild edible mushrooms. In this study, for the first time, the matB gene was selected as an endogenous reference gene of L. edodes and identified as the species‐specific gene. The matB genes of L. edodes and 18 non‐L. edodes species were determined by qualitative polymerase chain reaction (PCR), but no amplification was found in non‐L. edodes species. In SYBR Green quantitative PCR analysis, the detection limit was as low as 16 pg/µl of DNA template. All of these experiments indicated that the matB gene is an ideal reference gene and can detect L. edodes material through qualitative and quantitative PCR assays. It also provides a convenient and accurate approach for the detection of L. edodes products and the adulteration in wild edible mushroom products.

In vitro interactions between the ectomycorrhizal Pisolithus tinctorius and the saprotroph Hypholoma fasciculare fungi: morphological aspects and volatile production

Ectomycorrhizal fungi are crucial for forests sustainability. For Castanea sativa, ectomycorrhizal fungus Pisolithus tinctorius is an important mutualist partner. Saprotrophic fungi Hypholoma fasciculare, although used for biocontrol of Armillaria root disease, it negatively affected the interaction between the P. tinctorius and plant host roots, by compromise the formation of P. tinctorius-C. sativa mycorrhizae. In this work, fungal morphology during inhibition of H. fasciculare against P. tinctorius was elucidated. P. tinctorius growth was strongly affected by H. fasciculare, which was significantly reduced after six days of co-culture and become even more significant through time. During this period, P. tinctorius developed vesicles and calcium oxalate crystals, which were described as mechanisms to stress adaption by fungi. H. fasciculare produced different volatile organic compounds in co-cultures over time and differ between single or in dual-species. H. fasciculare highly produced sesquiterpenes (namely, α-muurolene) and nitrogen-containing compounds, which are recognised as having antimicrobial activity.

Combination of untargeted metabolomics approach and molecular networking analysis to identify unique natural components in wild Morchella sp. by UPLC-Q-TOF-MS

Morchella sp. is a typical edible fungus. However, its unique natural products, especially bioactive composition, are rarely reported. In this study, an untargeted metabolomics approach combined with multivariate statistical analysis was employed to screen the differential metabolites in Morchella sp. compared to four other edible fungi. Among the screened 50-top differential metabolites, 18 compounds involving fatty acids and peptides showed higher content in Morchella sp.. A unique peptide of desferriferricrocin was identified. Subsequently, molecular networking analysis revealed three novel homologous compounds of desferriferricrocin, which were annotated as desferriferrichrome, desferriferrichrome C, and a new homolog not previously reported. These results were further verified by quantitative analysis. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of four peptides in Morchella sp..

Chemical composition and chromatographic fingerprint of three strains of Agaricus subrufescens cultivated with handmade and commercial supplements

Exploratory factor analysis was applied to determine the chemical differences between fruitbodies of three Agaricus subrufescens mushroom strains [from Japan (JP), Brazil (ABZ), and Belgium (T2)] grown with handmade and commercial supplements. The composition of the ABZ strain cultivated with agro-industrial waste supplement presented a high nutritional composition regarding the amounts of fibre and protein, similar to mushrooms cultivated with the commercial supplement. The chromatographic fingerprints obtained for T2 and JP strains grown with commercial supplements presented similar profiles compared to those cultivated with the supplement based on peanut and the mix of supplements. The chromatographic analysis also showed that the similarities are correlated with the relative abundance of antioxidant compounds annotated by HPLC-MS, such as vanillic acid deoxyhexoside, caffeic acid hexoside, catechin hexosemalonate, digallic acid, cinnamic acid derivative, and p-coumaroylmalic acid. This study showed that handmade supplements based on agro-industrial waste could be viable alternatives for replacing high-cost supplements.

Building of an Internal Transcribed Spacer (ITS) Gene Dataset to Support the Italian Health Service in Mushroom Identification

This study aims at building an ITS gene dataset to support the Italian Health Service in mushroom identification. The target species were selected among those mostly involved in regional (Tuscany) poisoning cases. For each target species, all the ITS sequences already deposited in GenBank and BOLD databases were retrieved and accurately assessed for quality and reliability by a systematic filtering process. Wild specimens of target species were also collected to produce reference ITS sequences. These were used partly to set up and partly to validate the dataset by BLAST analysis. Overall, 7270 sequences were found in the two databases. After filtering, 1293 sequences (17.8%) were discarded, with a final retrieval of 5977 sequences. Ninety-seven ITS reference sequences were obtained from 76 collected mushroom specimens: 15 of them, obtained from 10 species with no sequences available after the filtering, were used to build the dataset, with a final taxonomic coverage of 96.7%. The other 82 sequences (66 species) were used for the dataset validation. In most of the cases (n = 71; 86.6%) they matched with identity values ≥ 97–100% with the corresponding species. The dataset was able to identify the species involved in regional poisoning incidents. As some of these species are also involved in poisonings at the national level, the dataset may be used for supporting the National Health Service throughout the Italian territory. Moreover, it can support the official control activities aimed at detecting frauds in commercial mushroom-based products and safeguarding consumers.

Reviewing the world's edible mushroom species: A new evidence-based classification system

Wild mushrooms are a vital source of income and nutrition for many poor communities and of value to recreational foragers. Literature relating to the edibility of mushroom species continues to expand, driven by an increasing demand for wild mushrooms, a wider interest in foraging, and the study of traditional foods. Although numerous case reports have been published on edible mushrooms, doubt and confusion persist regarding which species are safe and suitable to consume. Case reports often differ, and the evidence supporting the stated properties of mushrooms can be incomplete or ambiguous. The need for greater clarity on edible species is further underlined by increases in mushroom-related poisonings. We propose a system for categorizing mushroom species and assigning a final edibility status. Using this system, we reviewed 2,786 mushroom species from 99 countries, accessing 9,783 case reports, from over 1,100 sources. We identified 2,189 edible species, of which 2,006 can be consumed safely, and a further 183 species which required some form of pretreatment prior to safe consumption or were associated with allergic reactions by some. We identified 471 species of uncertain edibility because of missing or incomplete evidence of consumption, and 76 unconfirmed species because of unresolved, differing opinions on edibility and toxicity. This is the most comprehensive list of edible mushrooms available to date, demonstrating the huge number of mushrooms species consumed. Our review highlights the need for further information on uncertain and clash species, and the need to present evidence in a clear, unambiguous, and consistent manner.

Non-targeted discovery-based analysis for gas chromatography with mass spectrometry: A comparison of peak table, tile, and pixel-based Fisher ratio analysis

The ability to discover minute differences between samples or sample classes for gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (GC-MS) can be a challenging endeavor, especially when those differences are not a priori. Fisher ratio (F-ratio) analysis is an apt technique to probe the differences between GC-MS chromatograms. F-ratio analysis is a supervised, non-targeted, discovery-based method that compares two different samples (or sample classes) to reduce the GC-MS dataset into a hit list composed of class distinguishing compounds. Three different F-ratio techniques, peak table, tile, and pixel-based were used to "discover" nine non-native analytes that were spiked into gasoline at four different nominal concentrations of 250, 85, 25, 5 parts-per-million (ppm). For the tile and pixel-based F-ratio calculations, a novel methodology is introduced to improve the sensitivity of the F-ratio calculations while reducing false positives. Furthermore, we use a combinatorial technique using null class comparisons, termed null distribution analysis, to determine a statistical F-ratio cutoff for analysis of the hit lists. The pixel-based algorithm was the most sensitive method and was able to "discover" all nine spiked analytes at a nominal concentration of 250 ppm albeit with one false positive interspersed towards the bottom of the hit list. The pixel-based software was also able to "discover" more of the spiked analytes at the lower concentrations with seven of the spiked analytes "discovered" at 85 ppm, four of the spiked analytes "discovered" at 25 ppm, and one analyte "discovered" at 5 ppm.

Nontargeted Detection Methods for Food Safety and Integrity

Nontargeted workflows for chemical hazard analyses are highly desirable in the food safety and integrity fields to ensure human health. Two different analytical strategies, nontargeted metabolomics and chemical database filtering, can be used to screen unknown contaminants in food matrices. Sufficient mass and chromatographic resolutions are necessary for the detection of compounds and subsequent componentization and interpretation of candidate ions. Analytical chemistry–based technologies, including gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS), liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry (LC-MS), nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), and capillary electrophoresis–mass spectrometry (CE-MS), combined with chemometrics analysis are being used to generate molecular formulas of compounds of interest. The construction of a chemical database plays a crucial role in nontargeted detection. This review provides an overview of the current sample preparation, analytical chemistry–based techniques, and data analysis as well as the limitations and challenges of nontargeted detection methods for analyzing complex food matrices. Improvements in sample preparation and analytical platforms may enhance the relevance of food authenticity, quality, and safety.

Is the Yellow Knight Mushroom Edible or Not? A Systematic Review and Critical Viewpoints on the Toxicity of Tricholoma equestre

There is no scientific consensus regarding the safety of the Yellow Knight mushroom Tricholoma equestre (L.) P.Kumm. Following reports of cases of intoxication involving effects such as rhabdomyolysis, and supportive observations from in vivo experimental models, T. equestre is considered as a poisonous mushroom in some countries while in others it is still widely collected from the wild and consumed every year. In this paper, we review all the available information on T. equestre including its morphological and molecular characterization, nutritional value, levels of contaminants observed in fruiting bodies, the possibility of mistake with species that are morphologically similar, and the in vivo data on safety and cases of human intoxication. Based on available data, it is suggested that T. equestre cannot be considered as a toxic species and does not appear to exhibit any greater health threat than other mushroom species currently considered as edible. More care should be taken when reporting cases of human poisoning to fully identify T. equestre as the causative agent and to exclude a number of interfering factors. Specific guidelines for reporting future cases of poisoning with T. equestre are outlined in this paper. Any future research involving T. equestre should present the results of molecular phylogenetic analyses.

Investigation and analysis of Galerina sulciceps poisoning in a canteen

INTRODUCTION

Guizhou Province in China has an abundant resource of wild mushrooms, including numerous poisonous species which contain various toxins. The mortality rate from wild mushroom poisoning has been high in this area in recent years. Galerina sulciceps is a dangerously toxic mushroom which can be fatal if ingested.

METHODS

we report on an epidemiological investigation of G. sulciceps poisoning which occurred in Duyun City of Guizhou Province. The characteristics of this species, its toxicity, observed clinical features, laboratory data, treatment modality, and prognosis were investigated in order to provide a reference point for the prevention and treatment of this kind of mushroom poisoning.

RESULTS

Thirteen employees showed toxic symptoms after ingesting wild mushrooms the previous day in a company canteen. Clinical manifestation varied from gastroenteritis to hepatic and renal dysfunction. Most of the 13 patients presented with nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, diarrhea, and elevated levels of biochemical indices of hepatic and renal function, during which transaminase concentration peaked within 48-72 h. At 48 hours post-ingestion, all patients had hemodialysis, in addition to supportive care for hepatic and renal injury with oral Silibinin and Shenshuaining. All acute renal injury had resolved by day 10, and liver transaminases had trended toward normal in all patients and they were discharged. At follow-up in 30 days, both liver and renal function had completely recovered in all.

CONCLUSION

This poisoning occurs as a result of unintentional consumption of G. sulciceps, which is relatively rare in mushroom poisonings. All patients recovered fully after timely diagnosis and treatment. To prevent wild mushroom poisoning, the best preventive measure is to educate the public not to gather and eat any unidentified wild mushrooms.

Chemistry, Nutrition, and Health-Promoting Properties of Hericium erinaceus (Lion's Mane) Mushroom Fruiting Bodies and Mycelia and Their Bioactive Compounds

The culinary and medicinal mushroom Hericium erinaceus is widely consumed in Asian countries, but apparently not in the United States, for its nutritional and health benefits. To stimulate broader interest in the reported beneficial properties, this overview surveys and consolidates the widely scattered literature on the chemistry (isolation and structural characterization) of polysaccharides and secondary metabolites such as erinacines, hericerins, hericenones, resorcinols, steroids, mono- and diterpenes, and volatile aroma compounds, nutritional composition, food and industrial uses, and exceptional nutritional and health-promoting aspects of H. erinaceus. The reported health-promoting properties of the mushroom fruit bodies, mycelia, and bioactive pure compounds include antibiotic, anticarcinogenic, antidiabetic, antifatigue, antihypertensive, antihyperlipodemic, antisenescence, cardioprotective, hepatoprotective, nephroprotective, and neuroprotective properties and improvement of anxiety, cognitive function, and depression. The described anti-inflammatory, antioxidative, and immunostimulating properties in cells, animals, and humans seem to be responsible for the multiple health-promoting properties. A wide range of research advances and techniques are described and evaluated. The collated information and suggestion for further research might facilitate and guide further studies to optimize the use of the whole mushrooms and about 70 characterized actual and potential bioactive secondary metabolites to help prevent or treat human chronic, cognitive, and neurological diseases.

Solutions for low and high accuracy mass spectrometric data matching: a data-driven annotation strategy in nontargeted metabolomics

Ultra high pressure liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS) has become a widespread analytical technique in metabolomics investigations, however the benefit of high-performance chromatographic separation is often blunted due to insufficient mass spectrometric accuracy. A strategy that allows for the matching of UHPLC-MS data to highly accurate direct infusion electrospray ionization (DI-ESI) Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance/mass spectrometry (FTICR/MS) data is developed in this manuscript. Mass difference network (MDiN) based annotation of FTICR/MS data and matching to unique UHPLC-MS peaks enables the consecutive annotation of the chromatographic data set. A direct comparison of experimental m/z values provided no basis for the matching of both platforms. The matching of annotation-based exact neutral masses finally enabled the integration of platform specific multivariate statistical evaluations, minimizing the danger to compare artifacts generated on either platform. The approach was developed on a non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) data set.

Determination of amatoxins and phallotoxins in Amanita phalloides mushrooms from northeastern Portugal by HPLC-DAD-MS

Amanita phalloides is a toxic mushroom responsible for the majority of deaths occurring after mushrooms ingestion, mainly due to amatoxins. In the present study the contents and distribution of the major amatoxins and phallotoxins in different tissues of A. phalloides from two different sites of Portugal were analyzed by liquid chromatography (LC) coupled to diode array (DAD) and mass spectrometry (MS) detection. The main toxins were separated by LC and its chemical structures confirmed by MS. α-Amanitin contents in caps, stipe and volva tissues were quantified by RP-HPLC. The results show that caps have the highest content of amatoxins, whereas the volva was richest in phallotoxins. Moreover variability in the toxins composition from different geographic sites was also observed. This study provides for the first time the content of toxins in A. phalloides from Portugal.

Expanding current knowledge on the chemical composition and antioxidant activity of the genus Lactarius

Despite the presence of toxic compounds in inedible mushrooms, the question whether the chemical nutrients and non-nutrients compositions in edible and inedible Lactarius species are similar remains unanswered. To answer this question, Lactarius citriolens Pouzar and Lactarius turpis (Weinm.) Fr., two inedible species, were studied in order to obtain information about their chemical composition and bioactivity. Free sugars, fatty acids, tocopherols, organic and phenolic acids were analysed by chromatographic techniques coupled to different detectors. L. citriolens and L. turpis methanolic extracts were tested regarding antioxidant potential (reducing power, radical scavenging activity and lipid peroxidation inhibition). The composition of macronutrients varied among the two species, but the profiles were similar between them and among other Lactarius species; L. citriolens gave the highest energy contribution, saturated fatty acids and organic acids, while the L. turpis sample was richer in free sugars, mono- and polyunsaturated fatty acids, tocopherols and phenolic compounds. L. turpis methanolic extract showed the highest antioxidant activity. The absence of hepatoxicity of the methanolic extracts was confirmed in porcine liver primary cells (in vitro conditions). The present study provided new information about wild L. citriolens and L. turpis, comparing their chemical composition and antioxidant properties with other Lactarius species, and expanding the knowledge about this genus.