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Hussen J, Shawaf T, Alhojaily SM. The Impact of Anticoagulation Agent on the Composition and Phenotype of Blood Leukocytes in Dromedary Camels. Vet Sci 2022; 9:vetsci9020078. [PMID: 35202331 PMCID: PMC8878879 DOI: 10.3390/vetsci9020078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2021] [Revised: 01/26/2022] [Accepted: 02/11/2022] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
For the analysis of several cellular biomarkers, blood samples are anticoagulated using different agents with different modes of action. However, for the most commonly used anticoagulants, EDTA and heparin, varying effects on blood components have been reported in different species. As little is known about the impact of anticoagulants on the immunological evaluation of camel leukocytes, the present study analyzed the leukogram, the immunophenotype, and the cell vitality of camel leukocytes separated from blood samples anticoagulated with EDTA or lithium heparin. Using flow cytometry and staining with monoclonal antibodies to several cell surface markers, the composition and immunophenotype of camel leukocytes separated from blood anticoagulated with EDTA or heparin were analyzed. In comparison to EDTA-anticoagulated blood, using lithium heparin as an anticoagulant resulted in reduced numbers of total leukocytes and reduced numbers of neutrophils, which led to a reduced neutrophil to lymphocyte ratio. The analysis of cell necrosis and apoptosis after the staining of leukocytes with the DNA-sensitive dye propidium iodide and the mitochondrial membrane potential probe JC1 revealed a higher fraction of necrotic neutrophils and higher fractions of apoptotic neutrophils and monocytes in heparin blood than in EDTA blood. In addition, monocytes from heparin blood showed higher expression levels of the cell surface markers CD14, CD163, and MHCII when compared to cells from EDTA blood. Similarly, in heparin blood, CD44 and CD172a were expressed higher on neutrophils, while CD11a was expressed higher on lymphocytes in comparison to cells from EDTA blood. The results of the current study indicate the importance of considering the type of anticoagulant when investigating the composition, vitality, and immunophenotype of camel leukocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jamal Hussen
- Department of Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, King Faisal University, Al-Ahsa 31982, Saudi Arabia
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +966-135896626
| | - Turke Shawaf
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, King Faisal University, Al-Ahsa 31982, Saudi Arabia;
| | - Sameer M. Alhojaily
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, King Faisal University, Al-Ahsa 31982, Saudi Arabia;
- Agricultural and Veterinary Training and Research Station, King Faisal University, Al-Ahsa 31982, Saudi Arabia
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2
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Humam NAA. Bacterial phagocytosis and reactive oxygen species production by camel neutrophils and monocytes are influenced by the type of anticoagulation agent. Vet World 2021; 14:1888-1893. [PMID: 34475713 PMCID: PMC8404121 DOI: 10.14202/vetworld.2021.1888-1893] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2021] [Accepted: 06/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Background and Aim Anticoagulants with different modes of action are used in the collection of camel blood samples. In the innate immune response, camel neutrophils and monocytes can play several roles during infection and inflammation. For anticoagulants ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) and heparin, research has described their effects on different parameters of the immune system. However, to date, no research has examined the effects of anticoagulants on the functional activity of camel phagocytes. Therefore, this study analyzed the influence of K3EDTA and lithium heparin on the antimicrobial activity of camel neutrophils and monocytes. Materials and Methods Camel leukocytes were separated from blood collected in EDTA or heparin tubes, and their phagocytosis and reactive oxygen species (ROS) production activity were analyzed by flow cytometry after stimulation with Staphylococcus aureus or Escherichia coli bacteria. Results In comparison to the cells collected from the EDTA blood, the camel neutrophils and monocytes separated from the heparin blood showed higher phagocytosis activity of S. aureus and E. coli. In addition, the neutrophils and monocytes produced significantly more ROS when the blood was collected in the heparin tubes. Conclusion The antimicrobial functions of camel neutrophils and monocytes are significantly affected by the type of anticoagulation agent. Therefore, using heparin rather than EDTA as an anticoagulant is recommended when performing the functional analysis of phagocytosis and ROS production of camel phagocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naser Abdallah Al Humam
- Department of Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, King Faisal University, Al-Ahsa, Saudi Arabia
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Ngula J, Manjarín R, Martínez-Pastor F, Alegre B, Tejedor I, Brown T, Piñán J, Kirkwood RN, Domínguez JC. A novel semen supplement (SuinFort) improves sow fertility after artificial insemination. Anim Reprod Sci 2019; 210:106193. [PMID: 31635779 DOI: 10.1016/j.anireprosci.2019.106193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2018] [Revised: 08/28/2019] [Accepted: 09/12/2019] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
The objective of this study was to determine effects of a novel seminal supplement, SuinFort, on fertility of multiparous sows. For 2 years, a total of 1159 sows were assigned to be artificial inseminated (AI) either with semen supplemented with the additive (2 IU oxytocin, 5 μg lecirelin, 2 mM caffeine, n = 830 AI) or with no supplementation (Control, n = 2422 AI). The supplement was included 15 min before insemination. Supplementation with SuinFort resulted in greater fertility both by increasing farrowing rate 87.2% ± 0.7 to 90.7% ± 1.0 (P < 0.001) and litter size from 13.8 ± 0.1 to 14.4 ± 0.1 (P < 0.001). To test if there was a direct effect of SuinFort on spermatozoa, an in vitro experiment was conducted using semen doses from 10 boars. Semen was stored at 15 °C and on days 1, 2 and 3 were aliquoted to a control and SuinFort-supplemented group, incubated at 37 °C and analyzed for sperm quality at 15 min and 2 h. For aliquots with SuinFort, there was a small decrease in semen quality. In conclusion, the administration of a combination of oxytocin, lecirelin and caffeine to boar semen 15 min prior to AI, positively affects sow fertility. Considering that in vitro effects on sperm quality were small, it is likely that SuinFort affects fertility by modulating uterine function. Supplementation of semen with SuinFort, therefore, has potential for increasing pork production efficiency as a result of increased reproductive efficiency after AI of sows.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jose Ngula
- Department of Medicine, Surgery and Veterinary Anatomy, Universidad de León, s/n, León, 24071, Spain
| | - Rodrigo Manjarín
- Animal Science Department, California Polytechnic State University, One Grand Ave, Bldg. 10, San Luis Obispo, CA, 93407-0255, United States
| | - Felipe Martínez-Pastor
- Department of Molecular Biology (Cell Biology), Universidad de León, Spain; INDEGSAL, Universidad de León, 24071 León, Spain.
| | - Beatriz Alegre
- Department of Medicine, Surgery and Veterinary Anatomy, Universidad de León, s/n, León, 24071, Spain; INDEGSAL, Universidad de León, 24071 León, Spain
| | - Isabel Tejedor
- Department of Medicine, Surgery and Veterinary Anatomy, Universidad de León, s/n, León, 24071, Spain
| | - Tivon Brown
- School of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, University of Adelaide, Roseworthy, SA, 5371, Australia
| | - Javier Piñán
- Department of Medicine, Surgery and Veterinary Anatomy, Universidad de León, s/n, León, 24071, Spain
| | - Roy N Kirkwood
- School of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, University of Adelaide, Roseworthy, SA, 5371, Australia
| | - Juan Carlos Domínguez
- Department of Medicine, Surgery and Veterinary Anatomy, Universidad de León, s/n, León, 24071, Spain; INDEGSAL, Universidad de León, 24071 León, Spain
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Al Reef T, Ghanem E. Caffeine: Well-known as psychotropic substance, but little as immunomodulator. Immunobiology 2018; 223:818-825. [PMID: 30146130 DOI: 10.1016/j.imbio.2018.08.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2018] [Revised: 08/15/2018] [Accepted: 08/19/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
To date, numerable reviews are found in the literature prominent to the effect of caffeine on the immune system, with the latest review published in 2006. Database screening reveals around three thousand articles that have been published during the last decade. Interestingly, less than hundred articles involved humans and rodents as tested models, out of which 20% is of interest to this paper excluding studies done on the nervous and cardiac systems, and in pregnant and cancer cases. In this review, information pertaining to the experimental setup of various studies, namely, the tested model, the study type (in vivo or in vitro), and caffeine dose is covered to discern the behaviour of major cellular and molecular immune components in light of caffeine exposure. Although it is hard to extrapolate results done in rodents to humans and to relay conclusions from in vitro to in vivo studies, most of the collected data favor the suppressive effects of caffeine on the proliferation of stimulated lymphocytes. Macrophages and natural killer cells also exhibited a reduced activity in the presence of high caffeine doses compared to increased activity at low doses. Immunosuppression is also supported by reduced levels of major anti-inflammatory cytokines, IL-2, IL-6, TNF-α. Moreover, certain innate and adaptive immune receptors, such as TLR1, TLR2, TLR4, and MHC class I-related chain B (MICB) molecules, exhibited decreased expression levels. Thus, we support the use of caffeine to alleviate various inflammatory conditions and autoimmune diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tatiana Al Reef
- Department of Sciences, Faculty of Natural and Applied Sciences, Notre Dame University, Louaize, Lebanon
| | - Esther Ghanem
- Department of Sciences, Faculty of Natural and Applied Sciences, Notre Dame University, Louaize, Lebanon.
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Abstract
The ability to predict the fertility of bulls before semen is released into the field has been a long-term objective of the animal breeding industry. However, the recent shift in the dairy industry towards the intensive use of young genomically selected bulls has increased its urgency. Such bulls, which are often in the highest demand, are frequently only used intensively for one season and consequently there is limited time to track their field fertility. A more pressing issue is that they produce fewer sperm per ejaculate than mature bulls and therefore there is a need to reduce the sperm number per straw to the minimum required without a concomitant reduction in fertility. However, as individual bulls vary in the minimum number of sperm required to achieve their maximum fertility, this cannot be currently achieved without extensive field-testing. Although an in vitro semen quality test, or combination of tests, which can accurately and consistently determine a bull's fertility and the optimum sperm number required represent the 'holy grail' in terms of semen assessment, this has not been achieved to date. Understanding the underlying causes of variation in bull fertility is a key prerequisite to achieving this goal. In this review, we consider the reliability of sire conception rate estimates and then consider where along the pregnancy establishment axis the variation in reproductive loss between bulls occurs. We discuss the aetiology of these deficiencies in sperm function and propose avenues for future investigation.
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Pini T, Leahy T, Paul de Graaf S. Seminal plasma and cryopreservation alter ram sperm surface carbohydrates and interactions with neutrophils. Reprod Fertil Dev 2018; 30:689-702. [DOI: 10.1071/rd17251] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2017] [Accepted: 09/18/2017] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Spermatozoa deposited vaginally must navigate the physical, chemical and immune barriers of the cervix to reach the site of fertilisation. Characteristics that favour successful cervical transit remain largely unknown beyond the obvious factors of motility and viability. Epididymal and cryopreserved ram spermatozoa demonstrate poor cervical transit, for unknown reasons. We hypothesised that seminal plasma exposure and cryopreservation alter the surface sugars of these sperm populations and, consequently, their interaction with immune cells, both potential factors for successful cervical transit. The carbohydrate profiles of epididymal, ejaculated and frozen–thawed ram spermatozoa were assessed by flow cytometry and western blotting using lectins for galactose, sialic acid, N-acetylglucosamine and mannose. Seminal plasma exposure and cryopreservation caused significant changes to the relative amounts of surface sugars detected by flow cytometry and lectin blotting. Immune cell interaction was characterised using a neutrophil-binding assay. Seminal plasma acted as a robust protective mechanism, limiting binding of spermatozoa, whereas the media used for cryopreservation caused a significant disruption to opsonin-mediated binding. We were unable to demonstrate a link between changes to surface sugars and neutrophil susceptibility. Seminal plasma and cryopreservation clearly alter the sperm glycocalyx, as well as the interaction of spermatozoa with immune cells.
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Kowsar R, Keshtegar B, Marey MA, Miyamoto A. An autoregressive logistic model to predict the reciprocal effects of oviductal fluid components on in vitro spermophagy by neutrophils in cattle. Sci Rep 2017; 7:4482. [PMID: 28667317 PMCID: PMC5493678 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-04841-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2017] [Accepted: 05/22/2017] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
After intercourse/insemination, large numbers of sperm are deposited in the female reproductive tract (FRT), triggering a massive recruitment of neutrophils (PMNs) into the FRT, possibly to eliminate excessive sperm via phagocytosis. Some bovine oviductal fluid components (BOFCs) have been shown to regulate in vitro sperm phagocytosis (spermophagy) by PMNs. The modeling approach-based logistic regression (LR) and autoregressive logistic regression (ALR) can be used to predict the behavior of complex biological systems. We, first, compared the LR and ALR models using in vitro data to find which of them provides a better prediction of in vitro spermophagy in bovine. Then, the best model was used to identify and classify the reciprocal effects of BOFCs in regulating spermophagy. The ALR model was calibrated using an iterative procedure with a dynamical search direction. The superoxide production data were used to illustrate the accuracy in validating logit model-based ALR and LR. The ALR model was more accurate than the LR model. Based on in vitro data, the ALR predicted that the regulation of spermophagy by PMNs in bovine oviduct is more sensitive to alpha-1 acid glycoprotein (AGP), PGE2, bovine serum albumin (BSA), and to the combination of AGP or BSA with other BOFCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rasoul Kowsar
- Department of Animal Sciences, College of Agriculture, Isfahan University of Technology, Isfahan, 84156-83111, Iran. .,Graduate School of Animal and Food Hygiene, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Obihiro, Hokkaido, 080-8555, Japan.
| | - Behrooz Keshtegar
- Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Zabol, P.B. 9861335-856, Zabol, Iran.
| | - Mohamed A Marey
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Damanhur University, Behera, Egypt.,Graduate School of Animal and Food Hygiene, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Obihiro, Hokkaido, 080-8555, Japan
| | - Akio Miyamoto
- Graduate School of Animal and Food Hygiene, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Obihiro, Hokkaido, 080-8555, Japan
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Nait Mouloud M, Ouennoughi F, Yaiche L, Kaidi R, Iguer-ouada M. Effects of female bovine plasma collected at different days of the estrous cycle on epididymal spermatozoa motility. Theriogenology 2017; 91:44-54. [DOI: 10.1016/j.theriogenology.2016.12.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2016] [Revised: 12/03/2016] [Accepted: 12/20/2016] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Marey MA, Yousef MS, Liu J, Morita K, Sasaki M, Hayakawa H, Shimizu T, Miyamoto A. Angiotensin II increases sperm phagocytosis by neutrophils in vitro: A possible physiological role in the bovine oviduct. Mol Reprod Dev 2016; 83:630-9. [DOI: 10.1002/mrd.22672] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2015] [Accepted: 06/04/2016] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Mohamed Ali Marey
- Graduate School of Animal and Food Hygiene; Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine; Obihiro Japan
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine; Department of Theriogenology; Damanhur University; Behera Egypt
| | - Mohamed Samy Yousef
- Graduate School of Animal and Food Hygiene; Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine; Obihiro Japan
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine; Department of Theriogenology; Assiut University; Assiut Egypt
| | - Jinghui Liu
- Graduate School of Animal and Food Hygiene; Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine; Obihiro Japan
| | - Kazuhiro Morita
- Graduate School of Animal and Food Hygiene; Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine; Obihiro Japan
| | - Motoki Sasaki
- Department of Basic Veterinary Science; Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine; Obihiro Japan
| | | | - Takashi Shimizu
- Graduate School of Animal and Food Hygiene; Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine; Obihiro Japan
| | - Akio Miyamoto
- Graduate School of Animal and Food Hygiene; Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine; Obihiro Japan
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Funahashi H. Methods for Improving In Vitro and In Vivo Boar Sperm Fertility. Reprod Domest Anim 2016; 50 Suppl 2:40-7. [PMID: 26174918 DOI: 10.1111/rda.12568] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2015] [Accepted: 06/05/2015] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Fertility of boar spermatozoa is changed after ejaculation in vivo and in vitro. During processing for in vitro fertilization (IVF), although spermatozoa are induced capacitation, resulting in a high penetration rate, persistent obstacle of polyspermic penetration is still observed with a high incidence. For artificial insemination (AI), we still need a large number of spermatozoa and lose a majority of those in the female reproductive tract. Fertility of cryopreserved boar spermatozoa is still injured through freezing and thawing process. In the present brief review, factors affecting fertility of boar sperm during IVF, AI and cryopreservation are discussed in the context of discovering methodologies to improve it.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Funahashi
- Department of Animal Science, Okayama University, Okayama, Japan
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Characterizing asthma from a drop of blood using neutrophil chemotaxis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2014; 111:5813-8. [PMID: 24711384 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1324043111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Asthma is a chronic inflammatory disorder that affects more than 300 million people worldwide. Asthma management would benefit from additional tools that establish biomarkers to identify phenotypes of asthma. We present a microfluidic solution that discriminates asthma from allergic rhinitis based on a patient's neutrophil chemotactic function. The handheld diagnostic device sorts neutrophils from whole blood within 5 min, and generates a gradient of chemoattractant in the microchannels by placing a lid with chemoattractant onto the base of the device. This technology was used in a clinical setting to assay 34 asthmatic (n = 23) and nonasthmatic, allergic rhinitis (n = 11) patients to establish domains for asthma diagnosis based on neutrophil chemotaxis. We determined that neutrophils from asthmatic patients migrate significantly more slowly toward the chemoattractant compared with nonasthmatic patients (P = 0.002). Analysis of the receiver operator characteristics of the patient data revealed that using a chemotaxis velocity of 1.55 μm/min for asthma yields a diagnostic sensitivity and specificity of 96% and 73%, respectively. This study identifies neutrophil chemotaxis velocity as a potential biomarker for asthma, and we demonstrate a microfluidic technology that was used in a clinical setting to perform these measurements.
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Boar seminal plasma or hen's egg yolk decrease the in-vitro chemotactic and phagocytotic activities of neutrophils when co-incubated with boar or bull sperm. Theriogenology 2012; 77:73-80. [DOI: 10.1016/j.theriogenology.2011.07.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2010] [Revised: 07/06/2011] [Accepted: 07/10/2011] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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Caffeine, dibutyryl cyclic-AMP and heparin affect the chemotactic and phagocytotic activities of neutrophils for boar sperm in vitro. Theriogenology 2011; 75:1336-45. [PMID: 21295837 DOI: 10.1016/j.theriogenology.2010.12.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2010] [Revised: 12/05/2010] [Accepted: 12/06/2010] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
The objective was to examine the effects of caffeine, dibutyryl cyclic AMP, and heparin on the chemotaxis and/or phagocytosis of PMNs for porcine sperm. The chemotactic activity of PMNs, determined in a blind well chamber, increased (P < 0.05) when fresh serum was added to the medium (control containing BSA, 1109.5 cells/mm(2) vs serum, 1226.3 cells/mm(2)), regardless of the presence of sperm (control, 1121.1 cells/mm(2) vs serum, 1245.8 cells/mm(2)), whereas heat-inactivated serum did not affect activity (without sperm, 1099.4 cells/mm(2) and with sperm, 1132.6 cells/mm(2)). Regardless of live and dead sperm and of the origin of PMNs (boars vs sows), the phagocytotic activity of PMNs, as determined by co-culture of PMNs with sperm for 60 min, increased (P < 0.05) in the presence of fresh serum containing active complement (46.7 and 43.0%, respectively), but stimulation was decreased (P < 0.05) when 1 mM or higher concentrations of caffeine was added to the medium (from 40.7 to 20.8-31.6%). The origin of PMNs (sows vs boars) did not significantly affect phagocytotic activity. The percentage of PMNs that phagocytized polystyrene latex beads decreased when 2 mM caffeine was added to the medium containing porcine serum (from 43.7 to 21.5%). Serum-stimulated chemotactic activity of PMNs (1089.9 cells/mm(2)) was also reduced (P < 0.05) with 2 mM caffeine (942.5 cells/mm(2)). Furthermore, dibutyryl cAMP at ≥ 0.1 mM or heparin at ≥ 100 μg/mL decreased phagocytotic activity, in a concentration-dependent manner (P < 0.05). Supplementation of PMNs with heparin at 100 or 500 μg/mL decreased (P < 0.05) chemotactic activity in the presence of serum (from 1137.1 cells/mm(2) to 1008.8-1026.3 cells/mm(2)). We inferred that opsonization in the presence of active complement stimulated phagocytotic and chemotactic activities of PMNs, whereas supplementation with caffeine and dibutyryl cAMP (which could be associated with the intracellular cAMP level of PMNs) or adding heparin decreased serum-stimulated phagocytotic and chemotactic activities.
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