Ginseng: A dietary supplement as immune-modulator in various diseases

Real-world experience of Fuzheng Yiqing granule as chemoprophylaxis against COVID-19 infection among close contacts: A prospective cohort study

BACKGROUND

The objective of the current study was to evaluate whether the use of traditional Chinese medicine, Fuzheng Yiqing granule (FZYQG), was associated with a reduced infection risk of COVID-19 in close contacts.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS

This was a prospective cohort study across 203 quarantine centres for close contacts and secondary contacts of COVID-19 patients in Yangzhou city. FZYQG group was defined as quarantined individuals who voluntarily took FZYQG; control group did not take FZYQG. The primary outcome was the coronavirus test positive rate during quarantine period. Logistic regression with propensity score inverse probability weighting was used for adjusted analysis to evaluate independent association between FZYQG and test positive rate.

RESULTS

From July 13, 2021 to September 30, 2021, 3438 quarantined individuals took FZYQG and 2248 refused to take the granule. Test positive rate was significantly lower among quarantined individuals who took FZYQG (0.29% vs. 1.73%, risk ratio 0.17, 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.08-0.34, p < 0.001). On logistic regression, odds for test positive were decreased in FZYQG group (odds ratio: 0.16, 95% CI: 0.08-0.32, p < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Close and secondary contacts of COVID-19 patients who received FZYQG had a lower test positive rate than control individuals in real-world experience.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

This study has been registered on Chinese Clinical Trial Registry (ChiCTR2100049590) on August 5, 2021.

Ginsenoside Rg3, enriched in red ginseng extract, improves lipopolysaccharides-induced suppression of brown and beige adipose thermogenesis with mitochondrial activation

Brown adipose tissue (BAT) which is a critical regulator of energy homeostasis, and its activity is inhibited by obesity and low-grade chronic inflammation. Ginsenoside Rg3, the primary constituent of Korean red ginseng (steamed Panax ginseng CA Meyer), has shown therapeutic potential in combating inflammatory and metabolic diseases. However, it remains unclear whether Rg3 can protect against the suppression of browning or activation of BAT induced by inflammation. In this study, we conducted a screening of ginsenoside composition in red ginseng extract (RGE) and explored the anti-adipogenic effects of both RGE and Rg3. We observed that RGE (exist 0.25 mg/mL of Rg3) exhibited significant lipid-lowering effects in adipocytes during adipogenesis. Moreover, treatment with Rg3 (60 μM) led to the inhibition of triglyceride accumulation, subsequently promoting enhanced fatty acid oxidation, as evidenced by the conversion of radiolabeled 3H-fatty acids into 3H-H2O with mitochondrial activation. Rg3 alleviated the attenuation of browning in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-treated beige adipocytes and primary brown adipocytes by recovered by uncoupling protein 1 (UCP1) and the oxygen consumption rate compared to the LPS-treated group. These protective effects of Rg3 on inflammation-induced inhibition of beige and BAT-derived thermogenesis were confirmed in vivo by treating with CL316,243 (a beta-adrenergic receptor agonist) and LPS to induce browning and inflammation, respectively. Consistent with the in vitro data, treatment with Rg3 (2.5 mg/kg, 8 weeks) effectively reversed the LPS-induced inhibition of brown adipocyte features in C57BL/6 mice. Our findings confirm that Rg3-rich foods are potential browning agents that counteract chronic inflammation and metabolic complications.

Porcine Brain Enzyme Hydrolysate Enhances Immune Function and Antioxidant Defense via Modulation of Gut Microbiota in a Cyclophosphamide-Induced Immunodeficiency Model

This study examined how consuming porcine brain enzyme hydrolysate (PBEH) affects the immune function and composition of the gut microbiota in an immunodeficient animal model. Male Wistar rats aged 6 weeks were fed casein (control), 100 mg/kg body weight (BW), red ginseng extract (positive-control), and 6, 13, and 26 mg PBEH per kg BW (PBEH-L, PBEH-M, and PBEH-H, respectively) daily for 4 weeks. At 30 min after consuming assigned compounds, they were orally administered cyclophosphamide (CTX; 5 mg/kg BW), an immunosuppressive agent, to suppress the immune system by inhibiting the proliferation of lymphocytes. The normal-control rats were fed casein and water instead of CTX. Natural killer cell activity and splenocyte proliferation induced by 1 μg/mL lipopolysaccharide were lower in the control group than the normal-control group, and they significantly increased with PBEH consumption, particularly at high doses. The PBEH consumption increased dose-dependently in the Th1/Th2 ratio compared to the control. The lipid peroxide contents were lower in the PBEH group than in the control group. Moreover, PBEH m and PBEH-H consumption mitigated white pulp cell damage, reduced red pulp congestion, and increased spleen mast cells in the histological analysis. Intestinal microbiota composition demonstrated differences between the groups at the genus levels, with Akkermansia being more abundant in the control group than the normal-control group and the PBEH-H group showing a decrease. However, Bifidobacterium decreased in the control group but increased in the PBEH-H group. The β-diversity revealed distinct microbial communities of PBEH and positive-control groups compared to the control group (p < 0.05). The metagenome predictions revealed that PBEH-H influenced amino acid metabolism, antioxidant defense, insulin sensitivity, and longevity pathways. In conclusion, PBEH-H intake boosted immune responses and reduced lipid peroxides by modulating gut microbiota composition. These findings suggest that PBEH-H has the potential as a dietary supplement for improving immune function and gut health in individuals with immunodeficiency.

Ginseng Glucosyl Oleanolate from Ginsenoside Ro, Exhibited Anti-Liver Cancer Activities via MAPKs and Gut Microbiota In Vitro/Vivo

Ginseng is widely recognized for its diverse health benefits and serves as a functional food ingredient with global popularity. Ginsenosides with a broad range of pharmacological effects are the most crucial active ingredients in ginseng. This study aimed to derive ginseng glucosyl oleanolate (GGO) from ginsenoside Ro through enzymatic conversion and evaluate its impact on liver cancer in vitro and in vivo. GGO exhibited concentration-dependent HepG2 cell death and markedly inhibited cell proliferation via the MAPK signaling pathway. It also attenuated tumor growth in immunocompromised mice undergoing heterograft transplantation. Furthermore, GGO intervention caused a modulation of gut microbiota composition by specific bacterial populations, including Lactobacillus, Bacteroides, Clostridium, Enterococcus, etc., and ameliorated SCFA metabolism and colonic inflammation. These findings offer promising evidence for the potential use of GGO as a natural functional food ingredient in the prevention and treatment of cancer.

Uptake and accumulation of di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) in a soil-ginseng system and toxicological mechanisms on ginseng (Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer)

Di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) is regarded as a priority environmental pollutant. This study explored the adsorption and accumulation of DEHP within the ginseng-soil system and the mechanism of DEHP toxicity to ginseng (Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer). Under exposure to 22.10 mg/kg DEHP in soil, DEHP mainly accumulated in ginseng leaves (20.28 mg/kg), stems (4.84 mg/kg) and roots (2.00 mg/kg) after 42 days. The oxidative damage, metabolism, protein express of ginseng were comprehensively measured and analyzed. The results revealed that MDA presented an activation trend in ginseng stems and leaves after 42 days of DEHP exposure, while the opposite trend was observed for POD. Levels of ginsenoside metabolites Rg2, Rg3, Rg5, Rd, Rf and CK decreased in the ginseng rhizosphere exudates under DEHP stress. Further investigations revealed that DEHP disrupts ginsenoside synthesis by inducing glycosyltransferase (GS) and squalene synthase (SS) protein interactions. Molecular docking indicated that DEHP could stably bind to GS and SS by intermolecular forces. These findings provide new information on the ecotoxicological effect of DEHP on ginseng root.

Successful complementary therapy with traditional Chinese medicine in a patient with Qi and Jin deficiency symptoms from adult-onset Still's disease: A case report

BACKGROUND

Adult-onset Still's disease (AOSD) is a rare yet well-documented polygenic and systemic autoinflammatory disease characterized by recurrent spiking fever, transient skin rash, arthralgia, and sore throat. Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) holds a significant role in complementary and alternative medicine. This study presents a unique case of a female AOSD patient with concurrent Qi and fluid deficiency syndrome who received combined treatment with formulated Zhu Ye Shi Gao Decoction (ZYSGD).

CASE PRESENTATION

In this case, a 28-year-old female patient presented with a 15-day history of fever and skin rash accompanied by sore throat, fatigue, myalgia, and arthralgia. Additionally, leucocytosis, aminotransferase abnormalities, and elevated inflammatory factor levels were observed. Infectious diseases, solid tumors, and hematological disorders were all ruled out. Anti-infective treatments proved ineffective, leading to the final diagnosis of AOSD. Glucocorticoid therapy provided only partial relief. Consequently, formulated ZYSGD and hepatoprotective drugs were added to the glucocorticoid treatment. Subsequently, the patient's symptoms and inflammatory biomarkers showed improvement. After discharge, the patient's condition remained stable while continuing the formulated ZYSGD in combination with 4 mg of Medrolol (qd) during a 10-month follow-up period.

CONCLUSION

This case report suggests that formulated ZYSGD could be a viable option for complementary and alternative therapy for late-stage AOSD, especially in cases involving both Qi and body fluid imbalances.

Trichoderma spp. promotes ginseng biomass by influencing the soil microbial community

Introduction

Ginseng (Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer) has multiple effects on human health; however, soil degradation seriously affects its yield. Trichoderma spp. play an important role in improving plant biomass by influencing the soil environment. Therefore, it is necessary to screen efficient Trichoderma strains that can increase ginseng biomass and determine their mechanisms.

Methods

Herein, we selected six Trichoderma species (T. brevicompactum, T. velutinum, T. viridescens, T. atroviride, T. koningiopsis, and T. saturnisporum) isolated from ginseng rhizosphere soil, and evaluated their growth promoting effects on ginseng and their influence on the microbiome and chemical attributes of the ginseng rhizosphere soil.

Results

Except for T. saturnisporum (F), compared with the control, the other five species increased ginseng biomass. In terms of chemical properties, the pH value, available potassium content, and available phosphorus content in the ginseng rhizosphere soil increased by 1.16-5.85%, 0.16-14.03%, and 3.92-38.64%, respectively, after root irrigation with spores of Trichoderma species. For the soil microbiome, fungal Chao1 and Ace richness indices decreased. Application of Trichoderma enhanced the relative level of Proteobacteria, but reduced the relative level of Ascomycota. At the genus level, application of Trichoderma enhanced the relative levels of Sphingomonas, Blastomonas, and Trichoderma, but reduced the relative level of Fusarium. Available K and available P were the most important elements that affected the structure of the bacterial community, while total K was the most influential element for the structure of the fungal community structure.

Conclusion

The results indicated that the application of Trichoderma spp. could increase soil nutrients and regulate the structure and composition of the soil microbial community, thereby enhancing the biomass of ginseng. The results will provide guidance for soil improvement in ginseng cultivation.

The Potential of Korean Bioactive Substances and Functional Foods for Immune Enhancement

In this review, we explore the immunomodulatory properties of Korean foods, focusing on ginseng and fermented foods. One notable example is Korean red ginseng, known for its immune system-regulating effects attributed to the active ingredient, ginsenoside. Ginsenoside stimulates immune cells, enhancing immune function and suppressing inflammatory responses. With a long history, Korean red ginseng has demonstrated therapeutic effects against various diseases. Additionally, Korean fermented foods like kimchi, doenjang, chongkukjang, gochujang, vinegar, and jangajji provide diverse nutrients and bioactive substances, contributing to immune system enhancement. Moreover, traditional Korean natural herbs such as Cirsium setidens Nakai, Gomchwi, Beak-Jak-Yak, etc. possess immune-boosting properties and are used in various Korean foods. By incorporating these foods into one's diet, one can strengthen their immune system, positively impacting their overall health and well-being.

Rare ginsenosides: A unique perspective of ginseng research

BACKGROUND

Rare ginsenosides (Rg3, Rh2, C-K, etc.) refer to a group of dammarane triterpenoids that exist in low natural abundance, mostly produced by deglycosylation or side chain modification via physicochemical processing or metabolic transformation in gut, and last but not least, exhibited potent biological activity comparing to the primary ginsenosides, which lead to a high concern in both the research and development of ginseng and ginsenoside-related nutraceutical and natural products. Nevertheless, a comprehensive review on these promising compounds is not available yet.

AIM OF REVIEW

In this review, recent advances of Rare ginsenosides (RGs) were summarized dealing with the structurally diverse characteristics, traditional usage, drug discovery situation, clinical application, pharmacological effects and the underlying mechanisms, structure-activity relationship, toxicity, the stereochemistry properties, and production strategies.

KEY SCIENTIFIC CONCEPTS OF REVIEW

A total of 144 RGs with diverse skeletons and bioactivities were isolated from Panax species. RGs acted as natural ligands on some specific receptors, such as bile acid receptors, steroid hormone receptors, and adenosine diphosphate (ADP) receptors. The RGs showed promising bioactivities including immunoregulatory and adaptogen-like effect, anti-aging effect, anti-tumor effect, as well as their effects on cardiovascular and cerebrovascular system, central nervous system, obesity and diabetes, and interaction with gut microbiota. Clinical trials indicated the potential of RGs, while high quality data remains inadequate, and no obvious side effects was found. The stereochemistry properties induced by deglycosylation at C (20) were also addressed including pharmacodynamics behaviors, together with the state-of-art analytical strategies for the identification of saponin stereoisomers. Finally, the batch preparation of targeted RGs by designated strategies including heating or acid/ alkaline-assisted processes, and enzymatic biotransformation and biosynthesis were discussed. Hopefully, the present review can provide more clues for the extensive understanding and future in-depth research and development of RGs, originated from the worldwide well recognized ginseng plants.

Protective effects of Panax Ginseng against 131I-induced genotoxicity in patients with differentiated thyroid cancer

BACKGROUND

Radioiodine (131I) therapy (RAIT) is associated with oxidative stress (OS)-induced DNA damage in patients with differentiated thyroid cancer (DTC). The goal of this study was to evaluate the possible ameliorating effects of Panax Ginseng (PG) on RAIT-induced genotoxicity in patients with DTC.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Forty DTC patients who had received 131I (100 to 175 mCi) were enrolled in this study. The patients were randomly classified (n = 10) into control, placebo, PG1 groups (receiving 500 mg/day of PG for 2 days before RAIT), and PG2 group (receiving 500 mg/day of PG for 2 days before to 1 day after RAIT). Blood samples were collected before and 2 days after RAIT. Lymphocyte micronuclei (MN) frequency was measured using the MN assay. Serum total antioxidant capacity (TAC) and ischemia-modified albumin (IMA) were measured using colorimetric assays. Serum albumin, blood urea nitrogen (BUN), creatinine, aspartate aminotransferase (AST), and alanine aminotransferase (ALT) were measured using commercial kits.

RESULTS

The mean of baseline MN frequency was the same in the four groups. RAIT increased the MN frequencies to at least three times the baseline values in the control (39 ± 5) and placebo groups (38 ± 6) (P < 0.001). PG caused a significant decrease in the MN frequencies in the treated groups compared to the control and placebo groups (P < 0.001). RAIT and PG administration had no significant effects on the serum IMA, TAC, and markers of liver and kidney toxicity.

CONCLUSION

PG could be considered a useful remedy for the protection against RAIT-induced chromosomal damage in DCT patients.

Chemical Profiling, Quantitation, and Bioactivities of Ginseng Residue

Ginseng residue is a by-product stemming from the commercial extraction of ginsenosides. To assess the disparities between ginseng residue and ginseng tablet, we employed the ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-quadrupole time-of-flight/mass spectrometry (UPLC-Q-TOF/MS) technique for sample analysis. The analyses revealed the presence of 39 compounds in both ginseng residue and ginseng tablets. Subsequently, the contents of total ginsenosides and total ginseng polysaccharides in the ginseng residue and ginseng tablet were determined. The results indicate that while only a small fraction of ginsenosides remained in the ginseng residue, a significant amount of polysaccharides was retained. Furthermore, our evaluation encompassed the antioxidant activities of both ginseng residue and ginseng tablets. Notably, ginseng residue exhibited robust antioxidant effects, thereby showcasing its potential for recycling as a functional food raw material.

Efficacy and safety of traditional Chinese medicine for cancer-related fatigue: a systematic literature review of randomized controlled trials

BACKGROUND

Cancer-related fatigue (CRF) is an extremely common and long-term condition that affects the physical and mental health of oncology patients. While the treatment for CRF with western medicine and non-pharmacological therapy remains uncertain and challenging, traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) has become a trending option for the patients. Based on the findings from randomized controlled trials (RCTs), this study aims to identify and evaluate the evidence about the efficacy and safety of TCM for CRF.

METHODS

A systematic literature search was conducted according to the PRISMA literature research guidelines. Seven electronic databases including PubMed, the Cochrane Library, Embase, Web of Science, Scopus, China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI) and Wanfang database were searched to identify RCTs which investigated TCM in the treatment of CRF published since inception to December 2022. RCTs comparing TCM with no treatment, placebo, or pharmacological interventions were considered eligible for this review. The Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials Statement extensions for Chinese herbal medicine Formulas (CONSORT-CHM) and the Cochrane Collaboration's Risk of Bias tool were used in this review to evaluate the quality and the risk of bias of all included trials.

RESULTS

A total of 82 RCTs were included in this review, regardless of whether they were published in English or Chinese. After data extraction and results evaluation, 78 trials demonstrated overall efficacy in using TCM for CRF patients compared with the control group, in which 33 trials showed that the efficacy rate was statistically significant (p < 0.05 or p < 0.01). TCM was also shown to be beneficial in improving the scores of relevant scales (e.g., PFS, QoL, TCM syndrome score, other fatigue scales etc.) or physical tests indicators (e.g., cytokines, blood test etc.). The most common herbs found in Chinese medicine were Astragali Radix, Ginseng Radix and Codonopsis Radix. Some TCM products, such as Kangai Injection, Buzhong Yiqi Decoction and Shenqi Fuzheng Injection could provide a reference for medication in this review. A range of non-serious, reversible adverse effects associated with the use of TCM was also reported. However, the result of evaluation showed that none of the trials fully met all the CONSORT-CHM criteria, the quality of included trials was generally poor and the risk of bias was mostly uncertain.

CONCLUSION

There is some evidence supporting the efficacy and safety of TCM in managing CRF in this systematic review. However, no clear conclusion can be made due to the inadequate reporting of efficacy and adverse reactions. In view of some concerns about the existing evidence after the evaluation, it is essential to standardize the comprehensive identification and efficacy measurement standards, improve the quality of RCTs and conduct more multicomponent therapies to provide an updated reference for CRF patients medication in the future. The protocol of this systematic review has been registered on PROSPERO (CRD42023413625). [ https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero/display_record.php?ID=CRD42023413625 ].

Gut Bacterial Community Determines the Therapeutic Effect of Ginsenoside on Canine Inflammatory Bowel Disease by Modulating the Colonic Mucosal Barrier

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) comprises systemic inflammatory conditions primarily affecting the gastrointestinal tract, including Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis. This research aims to analyze the clinical symptoms and pathogenesis of a Dextran sodium sulfate (DSS)-induced canine IBD model and evaluate the restorative effect of ginsenoside from a pathogenesis perspective. We established the DSS-induced canine IBD model and studied the pathological mechanisms. Additionally, we examined the therapeutic effect of ginsenosides by assessing the Canine Inflammatory Bowel Disease Activity Index (CIBDAI), C-reactive protein (CRP) levels, colonic tissue morphology, protein expression, and mucosal bacterial community analysis. Our findings revealed a total ginsenoside content of 22.7% in the ginsenoside extract. Animal experiments demonstrated that dogs with IBD exhibited decreased mental state, significantly increased CIBDAI and CRP levels, disrupted colonic epithelial tissue structure, decreased expression of mucin, tight junctions, and adherens junctions, as well as reduced diversity of the colonic mucosal bacterial community. Furthermore, correlation analysis highlighted a total of 38 bacterial strains correlated with physiological indices. Significantly, ginsenoside treatment could improve these symptoms and reverse the relative abundance of some bacterial communities. In conclusion, alterations in the properties of the colonic mucus layer or the reduction in MUC2, its core component, in dogs with IBD can lead to bacterial penetration of the mucus layer and subsequent contact with intestinal epithelial cells, resulting in inflammation. Remarkably, ginsenoside intervention showcased the capacity to positively influence the relative abundance of bacteria and impact the colonic mucus layer properties, thereby offering promising prospects for IBD management and recovery.

Discrimination for geographical origin of Panax quinquefolius L. using UPLC Q-Orbitrap MS-based metabolomics approach

American ginseng, Panax quinquefolius L., is an important medicinal plant with multiple pharmacological effects and high nutritional value. American ginseng from different geographical origins varies in quality and price. However, there was no approach for discriminating American ginseng from different geographical origins to date. In this study, a metabolomic method based on the UPLC-Orbitrap fusion platform was established to comprehensively determine and analyze metabolites of American ginseng from America and Canada, Heilongjiang, Jilin, Liaoning, and Shandong provinces in China. A total of 382 metabolites were detected, including 230 saponins, 30 amino acids and derivatives, 27 organic acids and derivatives, 25 lipids, 17 carbohydrates and derivatives, 10 phenols, 8 nucleotides, and derivatives, as well as 35 other metabolites. Metabolite differences between North America and Asia producing areas were more obvious than within Asia. Twenty metabolites, contributed most to the differentiation of producing areas, were identified as potential markers with prediction accuracy higher than 91%. The results provide new insights into the metabolite composition of American ginseng from different origins, which will help discriminate origins and promote quality control of American ginseng.

Difference between Day and Night Temperature (DIF) and Light Intensity Affect Growth and Photosynthetic Characteristics of Panax ginseng Meyer Sprouts

Panax ginseng sprouts (PGS) have the advantage of requiring short-term cultivation while maintaining higher ginsenoside contents than traditional ginseng seedlings. It is feasible to improve their yield capacity by manipulating physical factors such as temperature and light. This study therefore investigated the effects of the DIF (difference between day and night temperature) and LI (light intensity) on the growth and photosynthetic characteristics of PGS. To this end, four DIF treatments (18/22 °C, 20/20 °C, 22/22 °C, 22/18 °C), corresponding to two LI regimes (20 PPFD, 200 PPFD), were applied on one-year-old ginseng rootlets in closed-type plant production systems (CPPSs). The PGS had distinctly different responses to the eight treatments. In particular, we found that negative DIF considerably hampered the growth and development of roots, shoots, leaves, and photosynthesis, regardless of the LI considered. The PGS treated with 20/20 °C combined with 20 PPFD displayed the best root growth, shoot development, leaf area, as well as optimal photosynthetic ability. On the other hand, we further showed that the root growth rate was positively correlated with the stem diameter, leaf traits, and photosynthetic ability, whereas it was negatively correlated with the petiole length, stem length, and shoot length. Collectively, 20/20 °C combined with 20 PPFD was the optimal condition in the current study, and may be regarded as a successful strategy for large-scale productions of PGS.

Application of UPLC-Triple TOF-MS/MS metabolomics strategy to reveal the dynamic changes of triterpenoid saponins during the decocting process of Asian ginseng and American ginseng

Triterpenoid saponins are the main bioactive components contributed to the nutritional value of ginseng, and different process conditions will affect their content and quality. To study the holistic characterization and dynamic changes of triterpenoid saponins in Asian ginseng (ASG) and American ginseng (AMG) during soaking and decoction, a UPLC-Triple TOF-MS/MS-based metabolomics strategy was used to characterize and discover differential saponin markers. In total, 739 triterpenoid saponins (including 225 potential new saponins) were identified from ASG and AMG in untargeted metabolomics. Based on PCA and OPLS-DA, 51 and 48 saponin markers were screened from soaked and decocted ASG and AMG, respectively. Additionally, targeted metabolomics analysis and HCA of 22 ginsenoside markers suggested that decoction of ASG and AMG for 2 h to 4 h could significantly increase the contents of rare ginsenosides (G), such as G-Rg₃, G-Rg₅, G-F₄. This study provides a scientific insight that high boiling combined with simmering enriches ASG and AMG extracts with rich rare ginsenosides that are more beneficial to human health.

Structures, Biochemical Characteristics, and Functions of β-Xylosidases

The complete degradation of abundant xylan derived from plants requires the participation of β-xylosidases to produce the xylose which can be converted to xylitol, ethanol, and other valuable chemicals. Some phytochemicals can also be hydrolyzed by β-xylosidases into bioactive substances, such as ginsenosides, 10-deacetyltaxol, cycloastragenol, and anthocyanidins. On the contrary, some hydroxyl-containing substances such as alcohols, sugars, and phenols can be xylosylated by β-xylosidases into new chemicals such as alkyl xylosides, oligosaccharides, and xylosylated phenols. Thus, β-xylosidases shows great application prospects in food, brewing, and pharmaceutical industries. This review focuses on the molecular structures, biochemical properties, and bioactive substance transformation function of β-xylosidases derived from bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes, and metagenomes. The molecular mechanisms of β-xylosidases related to the properties and functions are also discussed. This review will serve as a reference for the engineering and application of β-xylosidases in food, brewing, and pharmaceutical industries.

Abiotic factors and endophytes co-regulate flavone and terpenoid glycoside metabolism in Glycyrrhiza uralensis

Recently, endorhizospheric microbiota is realized to be able to promote the secondary metabolism in medicinal plants, but the detailed metabolic regulation metabolisms and whether the promotion is influenced by environmental factors are unclear yet. Here, the major flavonoids and endophytic bacterial communities in various Glycyrrhiza uralensis Fisch. roots collected from seven distinct places in northwest China, as well as the edaphic conditions, were characterized and analyzed. It was found that the soil moisture and temperature might modulate the secondary metabolism in G. uralensis roots partially through some endophytes. One rationally isolated endophyte Rhizobium rhizolycopersici GUH21 was proved to promote the accumulation of isoliquiritin and glycyrrhizic acid significantly in roots of the potted G. uralensis under the relatively high-level watering and low temperature. Furthermore, we did the comparative transcriptome analysis of G. uralensis seedling roots in different treatments to investigate the detailed mechanisms of the environment-endophyte-plant interactions and found that the low temperature went hand in hand with the high-level watering to activate the aglycone biosynthesis in G. uralensis, while GUH21 and the high-level watering cooperatively promoted the in planta glucosyl unit production. Our study is of significance for the development of methods to rationally promote the medicinal plant quality. KEY POINTS: • Soil temperature and moisture related to isoliquiritin contents in Glycyrrhiza uralensis Fisch. • Soil temperature and moisture related to the hosts' endophytic bacterial community structures. • The causal relation among abiotic factors-endophytes-host was proved through the pot experiment.

Design, synthesis, and biological evaluation of novel protopanoxadiol derivatives based PROTACs technology for the treatment of lung cancer

Protopanoxadiol is a key active ingredient derived from Panax ginseng that is well-known to exhibit anti-tumor activity. Previous research focused on the natural protopanaxadiol derivative AD-1 has demonstrated that it possesses broad spectrum anti-tumor activities in vitro and in vivo. However, its limited activity, selectivity, and cell permeability have impeded its therapeutic application. Herein, a series of novel AD-1 derivatives were designed and synthesized based on proteolysis-targeting chimera (PROTAC) technology by linking AD-1 at the C-3 and C-12 positions with pomalidomide through linkers of alkyl chain of differing lengths to achieve the goal of improving the efficacy of the parent compound. Among these synthesized PROTACs, the representative compound A05 exhibited the most potent anti-proliferative activity against A549 cells. Furthermore, mechanistic studies revealed that compound A05 was able to suppress MDM2 expression, disrupt interactions between p53 and MDM2 and readily induce apoptotic death via the mitochondrial apoptosis pathway. Moreover, the in vivo assays revealed that compound A05 exhibited both anti-proliferative and anti-metastatic activities in the zebrafish tumor xenograft model with A549 cells. Together, our findings suggest that AD-1 based PROTACs associated with the degradation of MDM2 may have promising effects for the treatment of lung cancer and this work provide a foundation for future efforts to develop novel anti-tumor agents from natural products.

Mechanistic Understanding of the Effects of Pectin on In Vivo Starch Digestion: A Review

Obesity and type II diabetes are closely related to the rapid digestion of starch. Starch is the major food-energy source for most humans, and thus knowledge about the regulation of starch digestion can contribute to prevention and improved treatment of carbohydrate metabolic disorders such as diabetes. Pectins are plant polysaccharides with complex molecular structures and ubiquitous presence in food, and have diverse effects on starch digestion. Pectins can favorably regulate in vivo starch digestion and blood glucose level responses, and these effects are attributed to several reasons: increasing the viscosity of digesta, inhibiting amylase activity, and regulating some in vivo physiological responses. Pectins can influence starch digestion via multiple mechanisms simultaneously, in ways that are highly structure-dependent. Utilizing the multi-functionalities of pectin could provide more ways to design low glycemic-response food and while avoiding the unpalatable high viscosity in food by which is commonly caused by many other dietary fibers.

Transcriptome expression profile of compound-K-enriched red ginseng extract (DDK-401) in Korean volunteers and its apoptotic properties

Ginseng and ginsenosides have been reported to have various pharmacological effects, but their efficacies depend on intestinal absorption. Compound K (CK) is gaining prominence for its biological and pharmaceutical properties. In this study, CK-enriched fermented red ginseng extract (DDK-401) was prepared by enzymatic reactions. To examine its pharmacokinetics, a randomized, single-dose, two-sequence, crossover study was performed with eleven healthy Korean male and female volunteers. The volunteers were assigned to take a single oral dose of one of two extracts, DDK-401 or common red ginseng extract (DDK-204), during the initial period. After a 7-day washout, they received the other extract. The pharmacokinetics of DDK-401 showed that its maximum plasma concentration (Cmax) occurred at 184.8 ± 39.64 ng/mL, Tmax was at 2.4 h, and AUC0-12h was 920.3 ± 194.70 ng h/mL, which were all better than those of DDK-204. The maximum CK absorption in the female volunteers was higher than that in the male volunteers. The differentially expressed genes from the male and female groups were subjected to a KEGG pathway analysis, which showed results in the cell death pathway, such as apoptosis and necroptosis. In cytotoxicity tests, DDK-401 and DDK-204 were not particularly toxic to normal (HaCaT) cells, but at a concentration of 250 μg/mL, DDK-401 had a much higher toxicity to human lung cancer (A549) cells than DDK-204. DDK-401 also showed a stronger antioxidant capacity than DDK-204 in both the DPPH and potassium ferricyanide reducing power assays. DDK-401 reduced the reactive oxygen species production in HaCaT cells with induced oxidative stress and led to apoptosis in the A549 cells. In the mRNA sequence analysis, a signaling pathway with selected marker genes was assessed by RT-PCR. In the HaCaT cells, DDK-401 and DDK-204 did not regulate FOXO3, TLR4, MMP-9, or p38 expression; however, in the A549 cells, DDK-401 downregulated the expressions of MMP9 and TLR4 as well as upregulated the expressions of the p38 and caspase-8 genes compared to DDK-204. These results suggest that DDK-401 could act as a molecular switch for these two cellular processes in response to cell damage signaling and that it could be a potential candidate for further evaluations in health promotion studies.

Bidirectional effects and mechanisms of traditional Chinese medicine

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The bidirectional property of traditional Chinese medicines (TCMs) was recorded in the classic work Medicine Origin (Yi Xue Qi Yuan) as early as the Jin and Yuan dynasties of ancient China. Since then, this imperative theory has been applied to guide the clinical application of TCMs. Studies have been performed to investigate this phenomenon only over the last three decades. A limited number of reviews on the bidirectional role of TCMs have been published, and almost all current studies are published in the Chinese language.

AIM OF THE REVIEW

The aim of this review is to provide the first comprehensive evidence regarding the bidirectional effects and the underlying mechanisms of TCMs and their active compounds.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Information relevant to opposing pharmacological activities or opposing properties exerted by TCM prescriptions, herbal medicines, and their active compound, as well as their mechanisms was summarized by searching Chinese and English databases, including the Chinese National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI), Wan Fang Data, Chinese Scientific Journal Database (VIP), Google Scholar, PubMed, Web of Science, Science Direct, and Wiley Online Library.

RESULTS

Although the bidirectional regulation of TCMs has been applied in the clinic since ancient times in China, only limited reviews have been published in Chinese. The existing data showed that bidirectional effects can be found in TCM prescriptions, herbal medicines, and pure active compounds. Additionally, the bidirectional role of TCMs was primarily reported in the modulation of immune function, blood circulation and hemostasis, gastrointestinal motility, the central nervous system and blood pressure. This may because the therapeutic outcomes of these disorders are more obvious than those of other complicated diseases. Intriguingly, some herbal medicines have multiple bidirectional activities; for instance, Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer showed bidirectional regulation of immune function and the central nervous system; Astragalus membranaceus can bidirectionally regulate blood pressure and immune function; and Rheum officinale Baill exerts bidirectional effects on blood circulation and hemostasis, gastrointestinal motility and immune function. The mechanisms underlying the bidirectional effects of TCMs are largely attributed to the complexity of herbal constituents, dosage differences, the processing of herbal medicine, and compatibility of medicines, the physiological conditions of patients and adaptogenic effects.

CONCLUSION

Uncovering the bidirectional effects and mechanisms of TCMs is of great importance for both scientific research and clinical applications. This review may help to facilitate the recognition of the bidirectional role of TCMs, to explain some seemingly-opposite phenomena in the pharmacological study of herbal medicines and to provide guidance for TCM practitioners.

Screening of Phytoconstituents from Traditional Plants against SARSCoV- 2 using Molecular Docking Approach

Background:

The emergence of COVID-19 as a fatal viral disease encourages researchers to develop effective and efficient therapeutic agents. The intervention of in silico studies has led to revolutionary changes in the conventional method of testing the bioactivity of plant constituents.

Objective:

The current study deals with the investigation of some traditional immunomodulators of plant origin to combat this ailment.

Materials and Methods:

A total of 151 phytomolecules of 12 immunomodulatory plants were evaluated for their inhibitory action against the main protease (PDB ID: 7D1M) and NSP15 endoribonuclease (PDB ID: 6WLC) by structure-based virtual screening. In addition, the promising molecules with ligand efficiency of more than -0.3(kcal/mol)/heavy atoms were further predicted for pharmacokinetic properties and druggability using the SwissADME web server, and their toxicity was also evaluated using Protox-II.

Result:

Myricetin-3-O-arabinofuranoside of cranberry plant was found to be the most potential candidate against both enzymes: main protease (–14.2 kcal/mol) and NSP15 endoribonuclease (–12.2 kcal/mol).

Conclusion:

The promising outcomes of the current study may be implemented in future drug development against coronavirus. The findings also help in the development of lead candidates of plant origin with a better ADMET profile in the future.

Regulatory network of ginsenoside biosynthesis under Ro stress in the hairy roots of Panax ginseng revealed by RNA sequencing

P. ginseng C.A. Meyer is a valuable Chinese herbal medicine that belongs to the Araliaceae family. Major obstacles to the continuous cropping of ginseng have severely restricted the sustainable development of the ginseng industry. The allelopathic effects of triterpenoid saponins play an important role in disorders related to continuous cropping; however, the mechanisms underlying the allelopathic autotoxicity of triterpenoid ginsenosides remain unknown. In this study, we performed mRNA and miRNA sequencing analyses to identify candidate genes and miRNAs that respond differentially to ginsenoside Ro stress in ginseng and their targets. The growth of the ginseng hairy roots was significantly inhibited under Ro stress (0.5 mg/L, Ro-0.5). The inhibition of root growth and injury to root-tip cells promoted the accumulation of the endogenous hormones indole-3-acetic acid and salicylic acid and inhibited the accumulation of abscisic acid and jasmonate acid. The accumulation of ginsenosides, except Rg3, was significantly inhibited under Ro-0.5 stress. An mRNA analysis of the Ro-0.5 and control groups showed that differentially expressed genes were mostly concentrated in the hormone signal transduction pathway. ARF7 and EFM were upregulated, whereas XTH23 and ZOX1 were downregulated. These genes represent important potential candidates for hormone-responsive continuous cropping diseases. In total, 74 differentially expressed miRNAs were identified based on the miRNA sequencing analysis, of which 22 were upregulated and 52 were downregulated. The target genes of ptc-miR156k_L + 1, mtr-miR156b-5p, gma-miR156a_R + 1, and mtr-miR156e all belonged to TRINITY_DN14567_c0_g4, which is a gene in the plant hormone signal transduction pathway. These four miRNAs were all negatively correlated with mRNA, indicating their likely involvement in the response of ginseng to continuous cropping disorders and the regulation of ginsenoside synthesis. Our findings provide useful insights for removing the barriers to continuous ginseng cropping and have important implications in the genetic engineering of plant stress responses.

Remarkable impact of commercial sterilizing on ginsenosides transformation in fresh ginseng pulp based on widely targeted metabolomics analysis

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Changes of terpenoids in SGP were identified by widely targeted metabolomics.

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88 terpenoids compounds including 30 types of ginsenosides were changed in SGP.

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Conversion mechanism of ginsenosides during commercial sterilization was elucidated.

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Ginsenoside ST3 was detected and F4, Rg3, and Rg5 were found in fresh ginseng pulp.

Terpenoids such as ginsenosides are the most important phytochemicals and functional components in ginseng. Commercial sterilizing with high temperature and high pressure is also one of the common methods of ginseng food processing. However, the changes of terpenoids in fresh ginsengs commercially sterilized are unclear. In this study, fresh ginseng pulp (FGP) was commercially sterilized at 121℃ for 30 min, and terpenoid compounds were analyzed by widely targeted metabolomics based on UPLC-ESI-MS/MS system. The commercial sterilization induced the changes of 88 terpenoid compounds including 30 types of ginsenosides, and many minor ginsenoside Rh4, Rg6, Rk2, F4, Rs3, Rk3, Rk1, Rg5, Rg3, Rg4 were remarkably increased in fresh ginseng pulp. Importantly, the ginsenoside ST3 was detected and F4, Rg3, and Rg5 were also found in fresh ginseng pulp. Commercial sterilizing at 121℃ for 30 min will remarkably affect the species and number of ginsenosides in ginseng food.

Safety and Efficacy of the Bordetella bronchiseptica Vaccine Combined with a Vegetable Oil Adjuvant and Multi-Omics Analysis of Its Potential Role in the Protective Response of Rabbits

Infectious respiratory diseases caused by Bordetella bronchiseptica (Bb) are seriously endangering the development of the rabbit industry in China. Unfortunately, no licensed vaccines are available for this pathogen. The present study was designed to determine whether the inactivated Bb antigen formulated with vegetable oil adjuvant (named E515) which contains soybean oil, vitamin E, and ginseng saponins, functions as a safe and effective vaccine (E515-Bb) against Bb infection in rabbits. Based on local and systemic reactions, both the E515 adjuvant alone and the E515-Bb vaccine exhibited good safety in rabbits. Immune response analysis implies that rabbits immunized with the E515-Bb vaccine produced significantly higher, earlier, and longer-lasting specific antibody responses and activated Th1/Th2/Th17 cell responses than those immunized with the aluminum hydroxide (Alum)-adjuvanted Bb vaccine (Alum-Bb) or Bb antigen alone. Moreover, the E515-Bb vaccine effectively protected rabbits from Bb infection. Additionally, integrated multi-omics analysis revealed that the immunoprotective effect of the E515-Bb vaccine was achieved through upregulation of the complement and coagulation cascades and cell adhesion molecule (CAM) pathways, and the downregulation of the P53 pathway. Overall, these results indicate that the E515-Bb vaccine is safe, elicits an efficient immune response and provides good protection against Bb infection in rabbits. Thus, the E515-adjuvanted Bb vaccine can be considered a promising candidate vaccine for preventing Bb infection.

Immunomodulatory Effect of Ginsenoside Rb2 Against Cyclophosphamide-Induced Immunosuppression in Mice

Ginsenoside Rb2 (Rb2), a fundamental saponin produced and isolated from ginseng (Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer), has a wide range of biological actions. The objective of this investigation was to see if ginsenoside Rb2 has any immunomodulatory properties against cyclophosphamide (CTX)-induced immunosuppression. For the positive control group, levamisole hydrochloride (LD) was used. We discovered that intraperitoneal injection of Rb2 (5, 10, 20 mg/kg) could relieve CTX-induced immunosuppression by enhanced immune organ index, reduced the pathological characteristics of immunosuppression, promoted natural killer (NK) cells viability, improved cell-mediated immune response, boosted the IFN-γ (Interferon-gamma), TNF-α (Tumor necrosis factor-alpha), IL-2 (Interleukin-2), and IgG (Immunoglobulin G), as well as macrophage activity like carbon clearance and phagocytic index. Rb2 significantly elevated the mRNA expression of IL-4 (Interleukin-4), SYK (Tyrosine-protein kinase-SYK), IL-2, TNF-α, and IL-6 (Interleukin-6) in the spleen of CTX-injected animals. Molecular docking results showed that Rb2 had excellent binding properties with IL-4, SYK, IL-2, TNF, and IL-6, indicating the target protein might be strongly correlated with the immunomodulatory effect of Rb2. Taken together, ginsenoside Rb2 can improve the immune function that is declined in CTX-induced immunosuppressed mice, the efficacy maybe due to the regulation of related cytokine and mRNA expression.

Functional food: complementary to fight against COVID-19

Background

The novel coronavirus has embarked on a global pandemic and severe mortality with limited access for its treatments and medications. For the lack of time, research, and enough efficacy, most vaccines are underdeveloped or unreachable to society. However, many recent studies suggest various alternative, complementary remedies for COVID-19, which are functional foods. This review provides an overview of how functional foods can play a great role through modulating the host immune system, generating antiviral activities, and synthesizing biologically active agents effective against the coronavirus.

Main body

This review article summarizes the natural defense mechanisms in tackling SARS-CoV-2 alongside conventional therapeutic options and their corresponding harmful side effects. By analyzing bioactive components of functional foods, we have outlined its different contributions to human health and its potential immunomodulatory and antiviral properties that can enhance resistivity to viral infection. Moreover, we have provided a myriad of accessible and cost-effective functional foods that could be further investigated to target specific key symptoms of COVID-19 infections. Finally, we have found various functional foods with potent bioactive compounds that can inhibit or prevent COVID-19 infections and disease progression.

Short conclusion

Numerous functional foods can help the body fight COVID-19 through several mechanisms such as the reduced release of pro-inflammatory cytokines, reduced expression of ACE2 receptors in cells, and inhibiting essential enzymes in SARS-CoV-2.

Immune-Enhancing Effects of Crude Polysaccharides from Korean Ginseng Berries on Spleens of Mice with Cyclophosphamide-Induced Immunosuppression

Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer is well known as traditional herbal medicine, and ginseng berries are known to exhibit potential immune-enhancing functions. However, little is known about the in vivo immunomodulatory activity of Korean ginseng berries. In this study, crude Korean ginseng berries polysaccharides (GBP) were isolated and their immunomodulatory activities were investigated using cyclophosphamide (CY)-induced immunosuppressive BALB/c mice. In CY-treated mice, oral administration of GBP (50-500 mg/kg BW) remarkably increased their spleen sizes and spleen indices and activated NK cell activities. GBP also resulted in the proliferation of splenic lymphocytes (coordinating with ConA: plant mitogen which is known to stimulate T-cell or LPS: endotoxin which binds receptor complex in B cells to promote the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines) in a dose-dependent manner. In addition, GBP significantly stimulated mRNA expression levels of immune-associated genes including interleukin-1β (IL-1β), IL-2, IL-4, IL-6, tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interferon-γ (IFN-γ), toll-like receptor 4 (TLR-4), and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) in CY-treated mice. These results indicate that GBP is involved in immune effects against CY-induced immunosuppression. Thus, GBP could be developed as an immunomodulation agent for medicinal or functional food application.

Characterization and quantification of ginsenosides from the root of Panax quinquefolius L. by integrating untargeted metabolites and targeted analysis using UPLC-Triple TOF-MS coupled with UFLC-ESI-MS/MS

The root of Panax quinquefolius L. (RPQ) is considered as an important functional food and rich in bioactive components, ginsenosides. To comprehensively characterize ginsenosides and evaluate the quality of RPQ from different sources, UPLC-Triple TOF-MS coupled with UFLC-ESI-MS/MS was applied to untargeted metabolites and targeted analysis for the first time. In untargeted metabolites analysis, a total of 225 ginsenosides were identified from RPQ using UPLC-Triple TOF-MS combined with SWATH data-independent strategy. Furthermore, the contents of 39 targeted ginsenoside markers in 14 RPQ samples were analyzed by a rapid and sensitive UFLC-ESI-MS/MS method. In addition, the results of chemometric analysis showed the quality of American RPQ was distinguished from that of Chinese RPQ according to the amount of targeted ginsenosides. This newly developed approach provides a powerful tool for enriching the diversity of saponins database and assessing the quality of RPQ, which can be further extended to other ginseng products and functional foods.

Ginseng® as a reproductive enhancer agent for African catfish, Clarias gariepinus (Burchell, 1822)

Ginseng (Ge) is one of the most famous and precious consumed herbal medicines around the world. Ge plant roots have many advantages regarded as important in increasing fish production. Thus, the present study was conducted to investigate the possibility of using different levels (0.0, 100, and 200 mg/kg diet) of Ge as a reproductive enhancer agent for African catfish, Clarias gariepinus males. Results revealed that fish fed 200 mg Ge/kg diet significantly (P ˂ 0.05) increased growth performance, feed efficiency, gonado-somatic index, hematological parameters, serum follicle-stimulating hormone, total antioxidant capacity, sperm quality parameters, and ultrastructure of spermatozoa, as well as led to positively improved of the histological structure of the testes tissue compared to other treatments. Based on the obtained findings, it could be concluded that the effective use of dietary Ge at a level of 200 mg/kg as a promising reproductive agent for adult African catfish males consequently led to the sustainability of aquaculture for African catfish.

Future Directions for the Discovery of Natural Product-Derived Immunomodulating Drugs

Drug discovery from natural sources is going through a renaissance, having spent many decades in the shadow of synthetic molecule drug discovery, despite the fact that natural product-derived compounds occupy a much greater chemical space than those created through synthetic chemistry methods. With this new era comes new possibilities, not least the novel targets that have emerged in recent times and the development of state-of-the-art technologies that can be applied to drug discovery from natural sources. Although progress has been made with some immunomodulating drugs, there remains a pressing need for new agents that can be used to treat the wide variety of conditions that arise from disruption, or over-activation, of the immune system; natural products may therefore be key in filling this gap. Recognising that, at present, there is no authoritative article that details the current state-of-the-art of the immunomodulatory activity of natural products, this in-depth review has arisen from a joint effort between the International Union of Basic and Clinical Pharmacology (IUPHAR) Natural Products and Immunopharmacology, with contributions from a Powered by Editorial Manager® and ProduXion Manager® from Aries Systems Corporation number of world-leading researchers in the field of natural product drug discovery, to provide a "position statement" on what natural products has to offer in the search for new immunomodulatory argents. To this end, we provide a historical look at previous discoveries of naturally occurring immunomodulators, present a picture of the current status of the field and provide insight into the future opportunities and challenges for the discovery of new drugs to treat immune-related diseases.

Bacterial endophytes from ginseng and their biotechnological application

Ginseng has been well-known as a medicinal plant for thousands of years. Bacterial endophytes ubiquitously colonize the inside tissues of ginseng without any disease symptoms. The identification of bacterial endophytes is conducted through either the internal transcribed spacer region combined with ribosomal sequences or metagenomics. Bacterial endophyte communities differ in their diversity and composition profile, depending on the geographical location, cultivation condition, and tissue, age, and species of ginseng. Bacterial endophytes have a significant effect on the growth of ginseng through indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) and siderophore production, phosphate solubilization, and nitrogen fixation. Moreover, bacterial endophytes can protect ginseng by acting as biocontrol agents. Interestingly, bacterial endophytes isolated from Panax species have the potential to produce ginsenosides and bioactive metabolites, which can be used in the production of food and medicine. The ability of bacterial endophytes to transform major ginsenosides into minor ginsenosides using β-glucosidase is gaining increasing attention as a promising biotechnology. Recently, metabolic engineering has accelerated the possibilities for potential applications of bacterial endophytes in producing beneficial secondary metabolites.

Ginseng: A bibliometric analysis of 40-year journey of global clinical trials

BACKGROUND

Ginseng has a long history of widespread use and remarkable effects as traditional medicine, adjuvant and dietary supplement. The therapeutic value, diverse functionalities and rapid development of ginseng have driven a significant increase in the number of ginseng clinical trials, ranging from its use in various ailments, formulation to safety concerns. Despite the persistent interest in ginseng clinical research, the medical effectiveness of ginseng is inconclusive and there is a lack of bibliometric analysis of the hundreds of ginseng clinical trials.

AIM OF REVIEW

This review aims to provide an extensive overview of ginseng clinical trials over the past 40 years (1979-2018) in combination with a qualitative and quantitative analysis. The annual clinical trial analysis of time distribution, country and institution network analysis for space cooperation, statistical analysis for various functions, as well as efficiency and effect size were performed for global ginseng clinical trials. Besides, preparation categories, administration routes, and the safety of ginseng clinical trials were also investigated.

KEY SCIENTIFIC CONCEPTS OF REVIEW

The 40-year journey of ginseng clinical trials has experienced emerging, boom, and stable or transitional stages. The global network of ginseng clinical trials has relevant regional distribution in Asia, North America and Europe. South Korea makes a great contribution to building up large research clusters and strong cooperation links. Universities are the key contributors to ginseng clinical trials. The development of ginseng products could be focused on the clinical trial in diseases with higher effectiveness or effect size, such as sexual function and cognitive & behavior and require rigorous investigations and evidence to evaluate safety. More attention should be paid to different effects from different preparations. We believe this review will provide new insights into the understanding of global ginseng clinical trials and identifies potential future perspectives for research and development of ginseng.

A system for reporting and evaluating adverse drug reactions of herbal medicine in Taiwan from 1998 to 2016

The Taiwan Adverse Drug Reaction Reporting System for Herbal Medicine (TADRRS-HM) has systematically documented suspected adverse events from adverse drug reaction (ADR) reports from 1998 (prior to its formal establishment in 2001) and evaluates safety profiles of herbal medicines. This article describes findings from 2079 ADR reports filed between 1998 and 2016: 941 reports involved single herbs and 87 involved folk herbals; 842 were generated from clinical trials, while 209 ADR reports involving foods, health foods, dietary supplement foods and herbal cuisine were grouped as Other. Severity assessments using the Modified Hartwig and Siegel scale classified 72.4% of ADRs as mild, 17.4% as moderate and 6.5% as severe. System Organ Class classification of the ADRs identified gastrointestinal system disorders as the most common (33.4%), followed by skin and subcutaneous tissue disorders (21.2%). The TADRRS-HM records indicate that herbal medicines may cause a wide range of ADRs. Aconiti Radix, Xiao-Qing-Long-Tang, and Datura suaveolens were the most commonly reported single herb, herbal formula, and folk herbal, respectively. The data indicate that herbal medicines may cause a wide range of ADRs. This system will confer long-term benefits for the development of Taiwan’s herbal medicines adverse reaction database and facilitate epidemiological analysis.

Improving the oxidative stability of breadsticks with ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba) and ginseng (Panax ginseng) dried extracts

Recently, there has been a growing interest in the use of natural antioxidants instead of synthetic ones. The aim of this work was to determine the effect of ginkgo and ginseng dried extracts as natural antioxidants on the stability of lipids in breadsticks over 55 days of storage at room temperature compared to butylated hydroxytoluene. Ginkgo and ginseng dried extracts were incorporated individually into breadstick formulae at levels of 0.5 and 1% to enhance its oxidative stability in storage. The increases in peroxide, p-anisidine and Totox values in the oil phase of the samples during storage were monitored. The changes in hydroperoxide, trans fatty acid and aldehyde contents were investigated by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. The sensory analysis was performed to evaluate the perceptible changes occurring during storage. The results indicated that the oxidation of oil in breadstick samples can be retarded by enriching the breadstick formula with dried ginseng extract at a 1% level.

Nigella sativa: A Dietary Supplement as an Immune-Modulator on the Basis of Bioactive Components

Nutrients can be considered as functional foods, which exert physiological benefits on immune system. The seeds of Nigella sativa, which have many active constituents, are mainly used for medicine, food spice, and nutritional supplements in Egypt. Much attention has been paid to N. sativa seeds for their anticancer, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, and immune properties. However, their active constituents and mechanisms underlying functions from N. sativa seeds is unclear. Thus, the bioactive constituents with immune regulation in N. sativa seeds were systematically studied. A new compound (3-methoxythymol-6-O-β-D-apiofuranosyl-(1→6)-β-D-glucopyranoside 1) and 11 known compounds (2–12) were separated from the N. sativa seeds by chromatographic methods. Their structures were then elucidated by spectroscopic analysis of MS, UV, IR, ¹H-, and ¹³C-NMR. Furthermore, immunomodulatory effects of those compounds in RAW 264.7 cells were evaluated by phagocytosis, nitric oxide (NO) and cytokine release, related mRNA transcription, and key proteins expression in vitro. Monosaccharide derivatives, Ethyl-α-D-furaarabinose (5), and Ethyl-β-D-fructofuranoside (8) were shown to played bidirectional regulatory roles in immunity and anti-inflammation through the regulation of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) signaling pathways. The results showed the active compounds and mechanisms of immune regulation in N. sativa, thus indicating that N. sativa seeds could be used as dietary supplements in immunomodulation.

Immunomodulatory Activity of Phyllanthus maderaspatensis in LPS-Stimulated Mouse Macrophage RAW 264.7 Cells

Phyllanthus species (Family Euphorbiaceae) has been used in traditional medicine of several countries as a cure for numerous diseases, including jaundice and hepatitis. This study is an attempt to evaluate the immunomodulatory activity of various fractions, column eluents of ethyl acetate fraction, and their polyphenols. Phyllanthus maderaspatensis were standardized using high-performance liquid chromatography to identify and quantify polyphenols, and purification of polyphenols was carried out using vacuum liquid chromatography. Subsequently, we tested various fractions, column eluents of ethyl acetate fraction, and polyphenols in vitro to assess their impact on nitric oxide (NO) production in LPS-stimulated mouse macrophage RAW 264.7 cells. The ethyl acetate fraction (100 μg mL−1) had a more significant stimulatory effect on LPS-stimulated NO production by the RAW 264.7 cells. We found that the ethyl acetate fraction contains a high amount of catechin, quercetin, ellagic acid kaempferol, and rutin, which are responsible for immunomodulation. The ethyl acetate fraction at concentrations of 25 and 50 μg mL−1 had a significant inhibitory effect and 100 μg mL−1 had a more significant stimulatory effect when compared with the LPS control. The percentage of inhibition by LPS control ranged from zero percentage, kaempferol ranged from 45.4% at 50 μg mL−1 to 41.88% at 100 μg mL−1, catechin ranged from 50% at 50 μg mL−1 to 35.28% at 100 μg mL−1, rutin ranged from 36.2% at 50 μg mL−1 to 47.44% at 100 μg mL−1, gallic acid ranged from 28.4% at 50 μg mL−1 to 50.9% at 100 μg mL−1, ellagic acid ranged from 45.12% at 50 μg mL−1 to 38.64% at 100 μg mL−1, and purified quercetin ranged from 26.2% at 50 μg mL−1to 45.48% at 100 μg mL−1. As NO plays an important role in the immune function, polyphenols’ treatment could modulate several aspects of host defense mechanisms owing to the stimulation of the inducible nitric oxide synthase.

Renoprotective and therapeutic effects of newly water, ethanol, and butanol ginseng fractions in hypertensive and chronic kidney disease with L-NAME

The present study investigated the protective and treatment effects of different ginseng fractions against L-NAME-induced renal toxicity in rats. The data obtained demonstrated that L-NAME significantly increased creatinine, urea, KIM-1, and lipocalin-2 levels in serum; and also increased renal MDA and eNOS levels compared with the control group. Three bioactive fractions were newly extracted from ginseng, analyzed by GC-MS analysis, and were examined for antimicrobial, prebiotic, and histological activities. All ginseng fractions improved such histological changes, as reflected by significant reductions in creatinine, urea, KIM-1, and LCN-2 levels in serum, and renal MDA and eNOS contents in tissue homogenate. The water ginseng fraction (WGF) has the highest prebiotic index of 4.7 toward Lactobacillus reuteri, and can improve the renal functions more than butanol ginseng fraction (BGF) and ethanol ginseng fraction (EGF). These three ginseng fractions significantly reversed L-NAME-induced depletion in the TNF-α gene expression level. Interestingly, WGF was able to improve the renal functions more than BGF and EGF. L-NAME led to alterations in the histological structure and functions of renal tissue of rats and ginseng supplementation could offer greater protection against these changes. Moreover, the WGF exhibited superior renoprotection properties when compared with the other two fractions: BGF and EGF, and the reference drug losartan.

Comparative study of structural properties and biological activities of polysaccharides extracted from Chroogomphus rutilus by four different approaches

Extraction processes significantly alter the structural and functional properties of polysaccharides. In this study, we extracted polysaccharides from Chroogomphis rutilus fruiting bodies (designated as CRP) using four methods, including hot water, ultrasound, microwave and sequential ultrasound-microwave, and designated these polysaccharides as CRP-H, CRP-M, CRP-U and CRP-UM, respectively. All CRPs were heteropolysaccharides with semblable monosaccharide types of glucose, mannose and galactose, mainly constituted of α-d-glucopyranosyl-(1 → 4). The extraction processes significantly affected the molecular weights, monosaccharide proportions, glycosidic bond ratios, branching degrees, triple-helix conformation and surface morphology of the CRPs. Among them, CRP-UM showed the highest yield and most potent antioxidative capacity in vitro and in HL-7702 cells, but the weakest activation of immunostimulatory response in RAW264.7 cells. In contrast, CRP-H exhibited the lowest yield but strongest immunostimulatory activity. Overall, microwave extraction could be utilized as a general and practical CRP extraction approach, based on its relatively high yield and bioactivities.

Structural analogues in herbal medicine ginseng hit a shared target to achieve cumulative bioactivity

By a pilot trial on investigating immunomodulatory activity and target of ginsenosides, the major bioactive components of ginseng, here we report that structural analogues in herbal medicines hit a shared target to achieve cumulative bioactivity. A ginsenoside analogues combination with definite immunomodulatory activity in vivo was designed by integrating pharmacodynamics, serum pharmacochemistry and pharmacokinetics approaches. The cumulative bioactivity of the ginsenoside analogues was validated on LPS/ATP-induced RAW264.7 macrophages. The potentially shared target NLRP3 involved in this immunomodulatory activity was predicted by systems pharmacology. The steady binding affinity between each ginsenoside and NLRP3 was defined by molecular docking and bio-layer interferometry assay. The activation of NLRP3 inflammasomes in LPS/ATP-induced RAW264.7 was significantly suppressed by the combination, but not by any individual, and the overexpression of NLRP3 counteracted the immunomodulatory activity of the combination. All these results demonstrate that the ginsenoside analogues jointly hit NLRP3 to achieve cumulative immunomodulatory activity.

Zhang et al. design ginsenoside structural analogues and demonstrate that their combination shows more potent immunomodulatory activities than individual ginsenosides used alone at the same dosages. They predict that these analogues act on the joint target NLRP3 and consequently suggest that structural analogues hit a shared target to achieve cumulative bioactivity.

Lanthanide Metal-Organic Framework-Based Fluorescent Sensor Arrays to Discriminate and Quantify Ingredients of Natural Medicine

The discrimination and quantification of the ingredients from natural medicines are a challenging issue due to their complicated and various structures. Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) have shown great promise in sensing applications. Here, we report a fluorescent sensor array for rapid identification of some natural compounds using a sensor array composed of four kinds of lanthanide (Eu³⁺ and Tb³⁺) fluorescent MOFs (Ln-MOFs), which have diversified fluorescent responses to 26 active/toxic compounds including 12 saponins, 7 flavonoids, 3 stilbenes, and 4 anthraquinones. The fluorescence of the Ln-MOFs after reaction with the compounds was summarized as datasets and processed by principle component analysis (PCA) and hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA) methods. The corresponding responses of the 4 types of compounds are well separated on 2D/3D PCA score plots and HCA dendrograms. We have also tested typical blind samples by concentration-dependent PCA, and an accuracy of 100% was obtained. In addition, the response mechanisms of the Ln-MOFs to the compounds were also studied. Compared with traditional methods using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry, the developed fluorescent sensor array provides a more efficient and economic strategy to discriminate various active/toxic ingredients in natural medicine.

Immunoenhancement effects of chitosan-modified ginseng stem-leaf saponins-encapsulated cubosomes as an ajuvant

Nanoparticle delivery of functional molecules and vaccine is a promising method for enhancing the immune response. The objective of this study was to design chitosan (CS)-modified ginseng stem-leaf saponins (GSLS)-encapsulated cubosomes (Cub-GSLS^CS) as a vaccine delivery system and explore its immunologic activity and adjuvanticity. In this study, CS-modified GSLS-encapsulated cubosomes (Cub-GSLS^CS) were prepared. The storage stability of GSLS and that of ovalbumin (OVA) were measured. Additionally, the immunopotentiation of Cub-GSLS^CS were assessed on potentiating macrophage in vitro, and the adjuvant activity was evaluated through immune response triggered by OVA model antigen. The encapsulation efficiency of optimized Cub-GSLS^CS was about 65 % with Im3m nanostructure. The Cub-GSLS^CS showed excellent stability and sustained release for up to 28 days. In vitro, Cub-GSLS^CS nanoparticles improved cellular uptake, stimulated cytokines secretion of IL-6, IL-12, TNF-α, and generated more inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) to produce higher levels of nitric oxide (NO) compared with other groups. Furthermore, the immunoadjuvant effects of OVA encapsulated Cub-GSLSCS nanoparticles (Cub-GSLS^CS-OVA) were observed through immunized mice. Results showed that the ratio of CD4+/CD8 + T lymphocytes was increased in Cub-GSLS^CS-OVA group. In addition, Cub-GSLS^CS-OVA nanoparticles induced dramatically high OVA-specific IgG, IgG1, and IgG2a levels and stimulated the secretion of cytokines. Cub-GSLS^CS may be a potential vaccine delivery system and induce a long-term sustained immunogenicity.