Photodynamic inactivation in food systems: A review of its application, mechanisms, and future perspective

Preparation of chitosan photodynamic antibacterial film loaded with VK3 complex in the preservation of chilled mutton

To effectively utilize the photodynamic antibacterial ability of vitamin K3 (VK3), by solving the photothermal instability of VK3, it was combined with natural polymers to apply the preservation of chilled mutton. We encapsulated VK3 in the (2-Hydroxypropyl)-β-cyclodextrin (HP-β-CD) to construct VK3-HP-β-CD complex and then introduced the complex to chitosan (CS) and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) to fabricate an antibacterial film (CS/PVA-VK3-HP-β-CD film). Through the packaging performance test of the film, the content of VK3-HP-β-CD was an important factor determining the properties of film including tensile strength, elongation at break, water vapor permeability, water content and water contact angle. Meanwhile, CS/PVA-VK3-HP-β-CD films could continuously release ROS under light and suspended in dark, thus realizing >99 % antibacterial rate for Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus. In the application experiment of chilled mutton, CS/PVA-VK3-1-HP-β-CD film could significantly inhibit the increase of total viable count (TVC), pH value (pH) and total volatile base nitrogen (TVB-N) of chilled mutton, and extended its shelf life for at least 12 days. These results indicated that the CS/PVA film with the VK3-HP-β-CD complex might have promising potential as an antibacterial material for packaging and preserving food.

Novel Halogenated Curcumin-Mediated Photodynamic Inactivation for the Preservation of Small Yellow Croaker (Larimichthys polyactis)

A novel class of halogenated curcumin, X-Cur (X = F, Cl, or Br), was synthesized, and its photosensitivity was evaluated. The results showed that Br-Cur with the highest singlet oxygen (1O2) generation capacity exhibited a better photodynamic inactivation (PDI) effect on the small yellow croaker (Larimichthys polyactis) than curcumin. This was attributed to the heavy atom effect of Br, which resulted in Br-Cur having the smallest singlet-triplet energy difference ΔEst(S1-T3) (0.140 eV) and the largest spin-orbit coupling value (0.642262 cm-1). When L. polyactis was treated with 0.025 wt % Br-Cur and exposed to blue LED irradiation (450 nm, 20 mW/cm2) for 20 min, the increase in the total volatile basic nitrogen content (28.23 ± 2.38 mg/100 g on day 6), pH, and total viable count (6.13 ± 0.06 log CFU/g on day 6) could be effectively controlled. Accordingly, Br-Cur is a promising photosensitizer for PDI preservation.

Integrated self-assembly and cross-linking technology engineered photodynamic antimicrobial film for efficient preservation of perishable foods

A new antibacterial film was constructed to combat the severe spoilage of fruits and vegetables caused by microorganisms. Specifically, photoresponsive cinnamaldehyde-tannic‑iron acetate nanospheres (CTF NPs) were prepared using ultrasonic-triggered irreversible equilibrium self-assembly and ionic cross-linking co-driven processes and were integrated into the matrix of κ-carrageenan (KC) (CTF-KC films) as functional fillers. The CTF0.4-KC film (KC film doped with 0.4 mg/mL CTF NPs) showed a 99.99% bactericidal rate against both E. coli and S. aureus, extended the storage period of cherry tomatoes from 20 to 32 days. The introduction of CTF enhanced the barrier, thermal stability, and mechanical strength properties, albeit with a slight compromise on transparency. Furthermore, the biosafety of the CTF0.4-KC film was confirmed through hemolysis and cytotoxicity tests. Together, the aforementioned results demonstrated the outstanding antibacterial and fresh-keeping properties of CTF0.4-KC. These desirable properties highlight the potential use of CTF0.4-KC films in food preservation applications.

Research on Food Preservation Based on Antibacterial Technology: Progress and Future Prospects

The nutrients present in food are not only prone to a series of physicochemical reactions but also provide conditions for the growth and reproduction of foodborne microorganisms. In recent years, many innovative methods from different fields have been introduced into food preservation, which extends the shelf life while maximizing the preservation of the original ingredients and properties of food. In this field, there is a lack of a systematic summary of new technologies emerging. In view of this, we overview the innovative methods applied to the field of food preservation in recent 3 years, focusing on a variety of technological approaches such as antimicrobial photodynamic therapy based on nanotechnology, electromagnetic radiation sterilization based on radiation technology, and antimicrobial peptides based on biomolecules. We also discuss the preservation mechanism and the application of the different methods to specific categories of products. We evaluated their advantages and limitations in the food industry, describing their development prospects. In addition, as microorganisms are the main causes of food spoilage, our review also has reference significance for clinical antibacterial treatment.

Curcumin-loaded food-grade nano-silica hybrid material exhibiting improved photodynamic effect and its application for the preservation of small yellow croaker (Larimichthys polyactis)

Two types of curcumin-loaded food-grade nano-silica (F-SiO2) hybrid materials were successfully synthesized using the rotary evaporation method (F-SiO2@Cur) and the adsorption method (Cur@F-SiO2). The microstructure and spectral analyses confirmed that the curcumin in F-SiO2@Cur was loaded within the nanopores in a non-aggregate form rather than being adsorbed onto the surface (Cur@F-SiO2). Additionally, F-SiO2@Cur exhibited remarkable water solubility (1510 ± 50.33 µg/mL) and photostability (a photodegradation ratio of only 59.22 %). Importantly, F-SiO2@Cur obtained a higher capacity for the generation of singlet oxygen (1O2) compared to control groups. Consequently, F-SiO2@Cur-mediated photodynamic inactivation (PDI) group attained the highest score in sensory evaluation and the best color protection effect in PDI experiment of small yellow croaker (Larimichthys polyactis) at 4 °C. Moreover, F-SiO2@Cur could effectively controlled total volatile basic nitrogen (TVB-N) content, pH, and total viable count (TVC), thereby prolonging the shelf life. Therefore, F-SiO2@Cur-mediated PDI is an effective fresh-keeping technology for aquatic products.

Ozone and photodynamic inactivation of norovirus surrogate bacteriophage MS2 in fresh Brazilian berries and surfaces

This study assessed the efficacy of ozone (bubble diffusion in water; 6.25 ppm) and photodynamic inactivation (PDT) using curcumin (75 μM) as photosensitizer (LED emission 430-470 nm; 33.6 mW/cm2 irradiance; 16.1, 20.2, and 24.2 J/cm2 light dose) against the Norovirus surrogate bacteriophage MS2 in Brazilian berries (black mulberry and pitanga) and surfaces (glass and stainless steel). Contaminated berries and surfaces were immersed in ozonized water or exposed to PDT-curcumin for different time intervals. Transmission electron microscopy was used to assess the effects of the treatments on MS2 viral particles. The MS2 inactivation by ozone and PDT-curcumin varied with the fruit and the surface tested. Ozone reduced the MS2 titer up to 3.6 log PFU/g in black mulberry and 4.1 log PFU/g in pitanga. On surfaces, the MS2 reduction by ozone reached 3.6 and 4.8 log PFU/cm2 on glass and stainless steel, respectively. PDT-curcumin reduced the MS2 3.2 and 4.8 log PFU/g in black mulberry and pitanga and 2.7 and 3.3 log PFU/cm2 on glass and stainless steel, respectively. MS2 particles were disintegrated by exposure of MS2 to ozone and PDT-curcumin on pitanga. Results can contribute to establishing effective practices for controlling NoV in fruits and surfaces, estimated based on MS2 bacteriophage behavior.

Advancing Photodynamic Antimicrobial Strategy: Sustainable Fabrication of Novel Lauryl Gallate-Chitosan Hydrophobic Films with Rapid Bacterial Capture and Biofilms Elimination Capabilities for Promoting Wound Healing

Bioinspired photoactive composites, in terms of photodynamic inactivation, cost-effectiveness, and biosafety, are promising alternatives to antibiotics for combating bacterial infections while avoiding antibacterial resistance. However, the weak bacterial membrane affinity of the photoactive substrate and the lack of synergistic antibacterial effect remain crucial shortcomings for their antibacterial applications. Herein, we developed a hydrophobic film from food antioxidant lauryl gallate covalently functionalized chitosan (LG-g-CS conjugates) through a green radical-induced grafting reaction that utilizes synergistic bacteria capture, contact-killing, and photodynamic inactivation activities to achieve enhanced bactericidal and biofilm elimination capabilities. Besides, the grafting reaction mechanism between LG and CS in the ascorbic acid (AA)/H2O2 redox system was further proposed. The LG-g-CS films feature hydrophobic side chains and photoactive phenolic hydroxyl groups, facilitating dual bactericidal activities through bacteria capture and contact-killing via strong hydrophobic and electrostatic interactions with bacterial membranes as well as blue light (BL)-driven photodynamic bacterial eradication through the enhanced generation of reactive oxygen species. As a result, the LG-g-CS films efficiently capture and immobilize bacteria and exhibit excellent photodynamic antibacterial activity against model bacteria (Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus) and their biofilms under BL irradiation. Moreover, LG-g-CS films could significantly promote the healing process of S. aureus-infected wounds. This research demonstrates a new strategy for designing and fabricating sustainable bactericidal and biofilm-removing materials with a high bacterial membrane affinity and photodynamic activity.

Erythrosine-Dialdehyde Cellulose Nanocrystal Coatings for Antibacterial Paper Packaging

Though paper is an environmentally friendly alternative to plastic as a packaging material, it lacks antibacterial properties, and some papers have a low resistance to oil or water. In this study, a multifunctional paper-coating material was developed to reduce the use of plastic packaging and enhance paper performance. Natural cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) with excellent properties were used as the base material for the coating. The CNCs were functionalized into dialdehyde CNCs (DACNCs) through periodate oxidation. The DACNCs were subsequently complexed using erythrosine as a photosensitizer to form an erythrosine-CNC composite (Ery-DACNCs) with photodynamic inactivation. The Ery-DACNCs achieved inactivations above 90% after 30 min of green light irradiation and above 85% after 60 min of white light irradiation (to simulate real-world lighting conditions), indicating photodynamic inactivation effects. The optimal parameters for a layer-by-layer dip coating of kraft paper with Ery-DACNCs were 4.5-wt% Ery-DACNCs and 15 coating layers. Compared to non-coated kraft paper and polyethylene-coated paper, the Ery-DACNC-coated paper exhibited enhanced mechanical properties (an increase of 28% in bursting strength). More than 90% of the bacteria were inactivated after 40 min of green light irradiation, and more than 80% were inactivated after 60 min of white light irradiation.

Photodynamic Inactivation of Staphylococcus aureus Using Aloe-emodin as Photosensitizer

Aloe-emodin (AE) is a natural compound with photodynamic properties. The aim of this study was to investigate the inhibitory effect of AE-mediated photodynamic inactivation (PDI) on Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus). The bacteriostatic efficiency under different photodynamic conditions and photosensitizing mechanism was studied in detail. The results showed that AE-mediated PDI exhibited a typical concentration and time-dependent characteristics. In terms of bactericidal mechanism, disruption of membrane integrity and increase of cell membrane permeability was observed. Type II reaction was assumed as the main photochemical reaction involved in AE-mediated PDI as evidenced by the action of different ROS quenching agents. Furthermore, AE-mediated PDI decreased the bacterial survival in freshly squeezed apple juice and maintained its quality. The combination of blue light and AE enlarged the application of AE as an effective natural photosensitizer suitable for a food system.

Advancements in nonthermal physical field technologies for prefabricated aquatic food: A comprehensive review

Aquatic foods are nutritious, enjoyable, and highly favored by consumers. In recent years, young consumers have shown a preference for prefabricated food due to its convenience, nutritional value, safety, and increasing market share. However, aquatic foods are prone to microbial spoilage due to their high moisture content, protein content, and unsaturated fatty acids. Furthermore, traditional processing methods of aquatic foods can lead to issues such as protein denaturation, lipid peroxidation, and other food safety and nutritional health problems. Therefore, there is a growing interest in exploring new technologies that can achieve a balance between antimicrobial efficiency and food quality. This review examines the mechanisms of cold plasma, high-pressure processing, photodynamic inactivation, pulsed electric field treatment, and ultraviolet irradiation. It also summarizes the research progress in nonthermal physical field technologies and their application combined with other technologies in prefabricated aquatic food. Additionally, the review discusses the current trends and developments in the field of prefabricated aquatic foods. The aim of this paper is to provide a theoretical basis for the development of new technologies and their implementation in the industrial production of prefabricated aquatic food.

Mechanisms and Performances of Physically and Chemically Crosslinked Gelatin-Based Hydrogels as Advanced Sustainable and Reusable "Jelly Ice Cube" Coolants

A novel reusable, plastic-free, and stable cooling medium, Jelly Ice Cubes (JIC), is developed based on crosslinked gelatin hydrogels for sustainable temperature control. A novel process involving a rapid-freezing-slow-thawing treatment and a subsequent photo-crosslinking reaction induced by menadione sodium bisulfite, a newly discovered photosensitizer, is able to effectively consolidate a three-dimensional (3-D) hydrogel network to survive repeated application freeze-thaw cycles (AFTCs). This study reveals the mechanisms and evidence of the synergistic effects of the physical and chemical crosslinking reactions. The results experimentally prove that the rapid-freezing-slow-thawing treatment induces the generation of gelatin microcrystalline domains, refines the protein polymeric network, and reduces the intervening distance for subsequent photo-crosslinking sites. The refined hydrogel 3-D network is consolidated by the photo-crosslinking reaction occurring at the intersectional areas of the gelatin microcrystalline domains. The proposed crosslinking approach yields JICs with superior mechanical properties, robustness, and consistent water content, even after repeated AFTCs, all the while retaining cooling efficiency and biodegradability. The proposed crosslinked hydrogel structure is potentially applicable to engineering other hydrogel materials, offering sustainble and biodegradable solutions with enhanced resilience against phase changes.

Approaches for a more microbiologically and chemically safe dried fruit supply chain

Global production of dried fruits has increased significantly in the past decade. Both the increased consumer acceptance of nutritious packaged food and the broad use of dried fruits in products such as confectionery and bakery goods have fueled the dried fruit demand. Unfortunately, outbreaks and recalls due to contamination by pathogenic bacteria and viruses as well as the detection of mycotoxins highlight the need for optimizing current approaches, and evaluating and adopting newer interventions to protect the microbial and chemical safety of dried fruits. Drying processes alone are inadequate to control these hazards. Pre- and post-drying treatments serve as promising opportunities, with or without combination with the drying step, to achieve the goals of efficient hazard control.

Quercetin mediated antimicrobial photodynamic treatment using blue light on Escherichia coli O157:H7 and Listeria monocytogenes

Interest in using an antimicrobial photodynamic treatment (aPDT) for the microbial decontamination of food has been growing. In this study, quercetin, a substance found ubiquitously in plants, was used as a novel exogenous photosensitizer with 405 nm blue light (BL) for the aPDT on foodborne pathogens, and the inactivation mechanism was elucidated. The inactivation of Escherichia coli O157:H7 and Listeria monocytogenes in PBS solution by the quercetin and BL combination treatment reached a log reduction of 6.2 and more than 7.55 at 80 J/cm² (68 min 21 s), respectively. When EDTA was added to investigate the reason for different resistance between two bacteria, the effect of aPDT was enhanced against E. coli O157:H7 but not L. monocytogenes. This result indicated that the lipopolysaccharide of Gram-negative bacteria operated as a protective barrier. It was experimentally demonstrated that quercetin generated the superoxide anion and hydrogen peroxide as the reactive oxygen species that oxidize and inactivate cell components. The damage to the bacterial cell membrane by aPDT was evaluated by propidium iodide, where the membrane integrity significantly (P < 0.05) decreased from 40 J/cm² compared to control. In addition, DNA integrity of bacteria was significantly (P < 0.05) more decreased after aPDT than BL treatment. The inactivation results could be applied in liquid food industries for decontamination of foodborne pathogens, and the mechanisms data was potentially utilized for further studies about aPDT using quercetin.

Antimicrobial curcumin-mediated photodynamic inactivation of bacteria in natural bovine casing

BACKGROUND

Outbreaks related to food contamination by resistant microorganisms is a worldwide concern that, motivates industries and research institutions to search for affordable solutions. Among the solutions that have been proposed, Photodynamic Inactivation (PDI) of microorganisms has gained prominence, among other aspects, because it is easy to apply and does not generate microbial resistance.

METHODS

In this study, we used the association between curcumin solubilized with Tween and light in the photodynamic inactivation process, using light-emitting diodes with a wavelength of 430 nm for decontamination S. Typhimurium and K. pneumoniae from bovine casings used as wrappers for meat products. The result was verified by counting and comparing the number of colony-forming units of the treatment concerning the negative control.

RESULTS

The solubilizer, Tween 80, used does not change the optical absorption of curcumin. An optical fluence of 150J/cm² induces a microbial log reduction of 3.8±0.2 and 2.7±0.1 for S. Typhimurium, and K. pneumoniae contaminated guts, respectively. For the 200μM concentration of curcumin, the PDI provided a microbial log reduction of 3.16±0.03 for S. Typhimurium. For K. pneumoniae, the minimal inhibitory concentration of curcumin occurs up to 12.5μM, causing an microbial log reduction of 2.08±0.03.

CONCLUSION

Both curcumin and tween are already used as additives in food production and do not pose health risks at the concentrations used. Furthermore, in the case of the material studied, the addition of curcumin favors the organoleptic quality associated with the color of the food, unlike the green or blue photossensitizers. The results pave the way for possible application of curcumin in finished meat products.

Chlorophyllin-Based 405 nm Light Photodynamic Improved Fresh-Cut Pakchoi Quality at Postharvest and Inhibited the Formation of Biofilm

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of chlorophyllin-based photodynamic inactivation (Chl-PDI) on biofilm formation and fresh-cut pakchoi quality during storage. Firstly, Chl-based PDI reduced the amount of biofilm in an in vivo experiment and inactivated the food spoilage bacteria. Antibacterial mechanism analysis indicated that the bacterial extracellular polysaccharides and extracellular proteins were vulnerable targets for attacks by the Chl-based PDI. Then, the food spoilage microorganisms (Pseudomonas reinekei and Pseudomonas palleroniana) were inoculated onto the surface of fresh-cut pakchoi. We used chlorophyllin (1 × 10⁻⁵ mol/L) and 405 nm light (22.27 J/cm² per day) to investigate the effect of Chl-based PDI treatment on fresh-cut pakchoi quality during storage. The results showed that Chl-based PDI increased the visual quality and the content of chlorophyll, VC, total soluble solids, and SOD activity and decreased the occurrence of leaf yellowing and POD activity. These suggest that Chl-based PDI can be used for the preservation of fresh-cut pakchoi and has the potential to inhibit biofilm formation of food spoilage bacteria. It is of great significance for the effective processing and traditional vegetable preservation.