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Wu Y, Che Y, Zhang Y, Xiong Y, Shu C, Jiang J, Li G, Guo L, Qiao T, Li S, Li O, Chang N, Zhang X, Zhang M, Qiu D, Xi H, Li J, Chen X, Ye M, Zhang J. Association between genetically proxied glucosamine and risk of cancer and non-neoplastic disease: A Mendelian randomization study. Front Genet 2024; 15:1293668. [PMID: 38993479 PMCID: PMC11236616 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2024.1293668] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2023] [Accepted: 05/16/2024] [Indexed: 07/13/2024] Open
Abstract
Introduction Observational investigations have examined the impact of glucosamine use on the risk of cancer and non-neoplastic diseases. However, the findings from these studies face limitations arising from confounding variables, reverse causation, and conflicting reports. Consequently, the establishment of a causal relationship between habitual glucosamine consumption and the risk of cancer and non-neoplastic diseases necessitates further investigation. Methods For Mendelian randomization (MR) investigation, we opted to employ single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) as instruments that exhibit robust associations with habitual glucosamine consumption. We obtained the corresponding effect estimates of these SNPs on the risk of cancer and non-neoplastic diseases by extracting summary data for genetic instruments linked to 49 varied cancer types amounting to 378,284 cases and 533,969 controls, as well as 20 non-neoplastic diseases encompassing 292,270 cases and 842,829 controls. Apart from the primary analysis utilizing inverse-variance weighted MR, we conducted two supplementary approaches to account for potential pleiotropy (MR-Egger and weighted median) and assessed their respective MR estimates. Furthermore, the results of the leave-one-out analysis revealed that there were no outlying instruments. Results Our results suggest divergence from accepted biological understanding, suggesting that genetically predicted glucosamine utilization may be linked to an increased vulnerability to specific illnesses, as evidenced by increased odds ratios and confidence intervals (95% CI) for diseases, such as malignant neoplasm of the eye and adnexa (2.47 [1.34-4.55]), benign neoplasm of the liver/bile ducts (2.12 [1.32-3.43]), benign neoplasm of the larynx (2.01 [1.36-2.96]), melanoma (1.74 [1.17-2.59]), follicular lymphoma (1.50 [1.06-2.11]), autoimmune thyroiditis (2.47 [1.49-4.08]), and autoimmune hyperthyroidism (1.93 [1.17-3.18]). In contrast to prior observational research, our genetic investigations demonstrate a positive correlation between habitual glucosamine consumption and an elevated risk of sigmoid colon cancer, lung adenocarcinoma, and benign neoplasm of the thyroid gland. Conclusion Casting doubt on the purported purely beneficial association between glucosamine ingestion and prevention of neoplastic and non-neoplastic diseases, habitual glucosamine ingestion exhibits dichotomous effects on disease outcomes. Endorsing the habitual consumption of glucosamine as a preventative measure against neoplastic and non-neoplastic diseases cannot be supported.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yingtong Wu
- Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Xijing Hospital, Air-Force Medical University, Xi’an, China
- First Sanatorium, Air Force Healthcare Center for Special Services, Hangzhou, China
| | - Yinggang Che
- Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Xijing Hospital, Air-Force Medical University, Xi’an, China
| | - Yong Zhang
- Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Xijing Hospital, Air-Force Medical University, Xi’an, China
| | - Yanlu Xiong
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, Tangdu Hospital, Air-Force Medical University, Xi’an, China
| | - Chen Shu
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, Tangdu Hospital, Air-Force Medical University, Xi’an, China
| | - Jun Jiang
- Department of Health Service, Air-Force Medical University, Xi’an, China
| | - Gaozhi Li
- 94498th Unit of the People’s Liberation Army of China, Nanyang, China
| | - Lin Guo
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Tangdu Hospital, Air-Force Medical University, Xi’an, China
| | - Tianyun Qiao
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, Tangdu Hospital, Air-Force Medical University, Xi’an, China
| | - Shuwen Li
- First Sanatorium, Air Force Healthcare Center for Special Services, Hangzhou, China
| | - Ou Li
- First Sanatorium, Air Force Healthcare Center for Special Services, Hangzhou, China
| | - Ning Chang
- Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Xijing Hospital, Air-Force Medical University, Xi’an, China
| | - Xinxin Zhang
- College of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, the 8th Medical Centre of Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Minzhe Zhang
- Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Xijing Hospital, Air-Force Medical University, Xi’an, China
| | - Dan Qiu
- Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Xijing Hospital, Air-Force Medical University, Xi’an, China
| | - Hangtian Xi
- Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Xijing Hospital, Air-Force Medical University, Xi’an, China
| | - Jinggeng Li
- Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Xijing Hospital, Air-Force Medical University, Xi’an, China
| | - Xiangxiang Chen
- Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Xijing Hospital, Air-Force Medical University, Xi’an, China
| | - Mingxiang Ye
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Jinling Hospital, Nanjing University School of Medicine, Nanjing, China
| | - Jian Zhang
- Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Xijing Hospital, Air-Force Medical University, Xi’an, China
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Singh P, Rajput M, Pandey M. Tumor hypoxia and role of hypoxia-inducible factor in oral cancer. World J Surg Oncol 2024; 22:18. [PMID: 38200568 PMCID: PMC10782715 DOI: 10.1186/s12957-023-03284-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2023] [Accepted: 12/14/2023] [Indexed: 01/12/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Head and neck cancer (HNC) is one of the most frequent malignancies in Asian males with a poor prognosis. Apart from well-known prognostic indicators, markers of tumor hypoxia can help us predict response to treatment and survival. METHODS A review of the literature on the present evidence and potential clinical importance of tumor hypoxia in head and neck cancer was carried out. The data obtained from the literature search is presented as a narrative review. RESULTS The literature shows possible associations between prognosis and low tumor oxygenation. Intermediate hypoxia biomarkers like HIF-1, GLUT-1, miRNA, and lactate, can help in predicting the response to therapy and survival as their altered expression is related to prognosis. CONCLUSIONS Hypoxia is common in HNC and can be detected by use of biomarkers. The tumors that show expression of hypoxia biomarkers have poor prognosis except for patients with human papilloma virus-associated or VHL-associated cancers. Therapeutic targeting of hypoxia is emerging; however, it is still in its nascent stage, with increasing clinical trials hypoxia is set to emerge as an attractive therapeutic target in HNC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pooja Singh
- Department of Surgical Oncology, Institute of Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, 221005, India.
| | - Monika Rajput
- Department of Surgical Oncology, Institute of Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, 221005, India
| | - Manoj Pandey
- Department of Surgical Oncology, Institute of Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, 221005, India
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Budi HS, Farhood B. Targeting oral tumor microenvironment for effective therapy. Cancer Cell Int 2023; 23:101. [PMID: 37221555 DOI: 10.1186/s12935-023-02943-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2023] [Accepted: 05/11/2023] [Indexed: 05/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Oral cancers are among the common head and neck malignancies. Different anticancer therapy modalities such as chemotherapy, immunotherapy, radiation therapy, and also targeted molecular therapy may be prescribed for targeting oral malignancies. Traditionally, it has been assumed that targeting malignant cells alone by anticancer modalities such as chemotherapy and radiotherapy suppresses tumor growth. In the last decade, a large number of experiments have confirmed the pivotal role of other cells and secreted molecules in the tumor microenvironment (TME) on tumor progression. Extracellular matrix and immunosuppressive cells such as tumor-associated macrophages, myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs), cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs), and regulatory T cells (Tregs) play key roles in the progression of tumors like oral cancers and resistance to therapy. On the other hand, infiltrated CD4 + and CD8 + T lymphocytes, and natural killer (NK) cells are key anti-tumor cells that suppress the proliferation of malignant cells. Modulation of extracellular matrix and immunosuppressive cells, and also stimulation of anticancer immunity have been suggested to treat oral malignancies more effectively. Furthermore, the administration of some adjuvants or combination therapy modalities may suppress oral malignancies more effectively. In this review, we discuss various interactions between oral cancer cells and TME. Furthermore, we also review the basic mechanisms within oral TME that may cause resistance to therapy. Potential targets and approaches for overcoming the resistance of oral cancers to various anticancer modalities will also be reviewed. The findings for targeting cells and potential therapeutic targets in clinical studies will also be reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hendrik Setia Budi
- Department of Oral Biology, Dental Pharmacology, Faculty of Dental Medicine, Universitas Airlangga, Surabaya, Indonesia.
| | - Bagher Farhood
- Department of Medical Physics and Radiology, Faculty of Paramedical Sciences, Kashan University of Medical Sciences, Kashan, Iran.
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Paneque A, Fortus H, Zheng J, Werlen G, Jacinto E. The Hexosamine Biosynthesis Pathway: Regulation and Function. Genes (Basel) 2023; 14:genes14040933. [PMID: 37107691 PMCID: PMC10138107 DOI: 10.3390/genes14040933] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 33.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2023] [Revised: 04/13/2023] [Accepted: 04/14/2023] [Indexed: 04/29/2023] Open
Abstract
The hexosamine biosynthesis pathway (HBP) produces uridine diphosphate-N-acetyl glucosamine, UDP-GlcNAc, which is a key metabolite that is used for N- or O-linked glycosylation, a co- or post-translational modification, respectively, that modulates protein activity and expression. The production of hexosamines can occur via de novo or salvage mechanisms that are catalyzed by metabolic enzymes. Nutrients including glutamine, glucose, acetyl-CoA, and UTP are utilized by the HBP. Together with availability of these nutrients, signaling molecules that respond to environmental signals, such as mTOR, AMPK, and stress-regulated transcription factors, modulate the HBP. This review discusses the regulation of GFAT, the key enzyme of the de novo HBP, as well as other metabolic enzymes that catalyze the reactions to produce UDP-GlcNAc. We also examine the contribution of the salvage mechanisms in the HBP and how dietary supplementation of the salvage metabolites glucosamine and N-acetylglucosamine could reprogram metabolism and have therapeutic potential. We elaborate on how UDP-GlcNAc is utilized for N-glycosylation of membrane and secretory proteins and how the HBP is reprogrammed during nutrient fluctuations to maintain proteostasis. We also consider how O-GlcNAcylation is coupled to nutrient availability and how this modification modulates cell signaling. We summarize how deregulation of protein N-glycosylation and O-GlcNAcylation can lead to diseases including cancer, diabetes, immunodeficiencies, and congenital disorders of glycosylation. We review the current pharmacological strategies to inhibit GFAT and other enzymes involved in the HBP or glycosylation and how engineered prodrugs could have better therapeutic efficacy for the treatment of diseases related to HBP deregulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alysta Paneque
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, NJ 08854, USA
| | - Harvey Fortus
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, NJ 08854, USA
| | - Julia Zheng
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, NJ 08854, USA
| | - Guy Werlen
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, NJ 08854, USA
| | - Estela Jacinto
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, NJ 08854, USA
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Zhou J, Wu Z, Lin Z, Wang W, Wan R, Liu T. Association between glucosamine use and cancer mortality: A large prospective cohort study. Front Nutr 2022; 9:947818. [PMID: 36407521 PMCID: PMC9667031 DOI: 10.3389/fnut.2022.947818] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2022] [Accepted: 10/10/2022] [Indexed: 08/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Objective Previous studies have shown anti-cancer and anti-inflammatory benefits of glucosamine. This study was performed to prospectively evaluate the association between glucosamine supplementation and the mortality of multiple cancers based on the UK Biobank cohort study. Materials and methods A total of 453,645 participants aged 38-73 who had no cancer at baseline were recruited between 2006 and 2010 and followed until March 2021. We used cox and poission proportional hazards models to explore the association between habitual use of glucosamine and cancer mortality. Subgroup analyses were conducted to understand the potential effect modifications of demographics, lifestyle factors, and health outcomes. Sensitivity analyses were performed to determine the robustness of the results. Results Of the participants, 88,224 (19.4%) reported habitual glucosamine use at baseline. There were 9,366 cancer deaths during a median follow-up of 12.1 years, and we observed a significant association between the use of glucosamine and lower overall cancer mortality (HR = 0.95, 95% CI = 0.90-1.00, p < 0.05), kidney cancer (IRR = 0.68, 95% CI = 0.49-0.95, p < 0.05), lung cancer mortality (IRR = 0.84, 95% CI = 0.74-0.95, p < 0.05), and rectum cancer (IRR = 0.76, 95% CI = 0.59-0.98, p < 0.05). Subgroup analysis showed that habitual glucosamine supplementation was correlated with lower overall cancer mortality among participants who were aged ≥ 60 years, male, current smoker, without high cholesterol and not obese. Sensitivity analysis showed that the results were stable. Conclusion Habitual glucosamine use was significantly related to decreased overall cancer, kidney cancer, lung cancer, and rectum cancer mortality, based on data from the large-scale, nationwide, prospective UK Biobank cohort study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian Zhou
- Department of Orthopedics, The Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Ziyi Wu
- Department of Orthopedics, The Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Zhengjun Lin
- Department of Orthopedics, The Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Wanchun Wang
- Department of Orthopedics, The Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Rongjun Wan
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, National Key Clinical Specialty, Branch of National Clinical Research Center for Respiratory Disease, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
- Laboratory of Bone Disorder, The Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Tang Liu
- Department of Orthopedics, The Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
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Myeloid cell leukemia-1 expression in cancers of the oral cavity: a scoping review. Cancer Cell Int 2022; 22:182. [PMID: 35524332 PMCID: PMC9074253 DOI: 10.1186/s12935-022-02603-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2021] [Accepted: 04/20/2022] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Background B cell lymphoma-2 (Bcl-2) family members play important roles in cell survival as well as cell death. The role of myeloid cell leukemia-1 (Mcl-1), an important member of the Bcl-2 family, is well established in hematopoietic malignancies. However, the association between Mcl-1 and oral cavity, cancers is not clearly defined. Methods A scoping review was conducted until June 30, 2021, using four major databases, PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and Embase. Medical subject headings keywords for Mcl-1, along with its other identifiers, and head and neck cancers (only oral cavity tumors) were used to evaluate the expression, function, molecular association, and therapeutic approach of Mcl-1 in oral cavity cancers and precancers. Findings Mcl-1 expression was associated with the progression of oral cavity cancers. The molecular mechanism and pathways of Mcl-1 in oral cavity cancers established via experimental results have been highlighted in this review. Moreover, the various synthetic and naturally derived therapeutic agents targeting Mcl-1 have been documented. Novelty/Improvement Based on our present review, Mcl-1 appears to be an effective anticancer target that can be used in the therapeutic management of oral cancers.
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Valinezhad Sani F, Palizban A, Mosaffa F, Jamialahmadi K. Glucosamine attenuates drug resistance in Mitoxantrone-resistance breast cancer cells. J Pharm Pharmacol 2021; 73:922-927. [PMID: 33885909 DOI: 10.1093/jpp/rgaa032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2020] [Accepted: 04/13/2021] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES This study was aimed at investigating the cytotoxicity and multi-drug resistance (MDR) reversal effect of Glucosamine (GlcN) on resistant BCRP-overexpressing breast cancer MCF-7/MX cells. METHODS After confirming the overexpression of BCRP, the cytotoxicity and MDR reversing potential of GlcN on MCF-7/MX mitoxantrone-resistant and MCF-7 sensitive breast cancer cells were assessed via MTT assay. The effects of GlcN on mitoxantrone accumulation were analyzed through flow cytometry. Finally, the expression of BCRP and Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition (EMT)-related markers following the exposure to GlcN were assessed by real-time RT-PCR. KEY FINDINGS This study showed that glucosamine had an inhibitory effect on the proliferation of human breast cancer cells. The respective IC50 values for MCF-7/MX cells following exposure to mitoxantrone (MX) in the presence of GlcN (0, 0.5 and 1 mm) for 72 h were 3.61 ± 0.21, 0.598 ± 0.041 and 0.284 ± 0.016 μm, respectively. Furthermore, GlcN reduced the expression of BCRP mRNA without any significant effect on EMT-related markers in breast cancer cells. CONCLUSIONS These results proposed that glucosamine as a natural sugar could down regulate the BCRP expression and increased MX cytotoxicity in breast cancer cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fatemeh Valinezhad Sani
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran.,Department of Laboratory Sciences, School of Paramedical Sciences, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad,Iran
| | - Abbasali Palizban
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran
| | - Fatemeh Mosaffa
- Biotechnology Research Center, Pharmaceutical Technology Institute, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad,Iran.,Department of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, School of Pharmacy, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad,Iran
| | - Khadijeh Jamialahmadi
- Biotechnology Research Center, Pharmaceutical Technology Institute, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad,Iran.,Department of Medical Biotechnology and Nanotechnology, Faculty of Medicine, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad,Iran
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Cole DW, Svider PF, Shenouda KG, Lee PB, Yoo NG, McLeod TM, Mutchnick SA, Yoo GH, Kaufman RJ, Callaghan MU, Fribley AM. Targeting the unfolded protein response in head and neck and oral cavity cancers. Exp Cell Res 2019; 382:111386. [PMID: 31075256 DOI: 10.1016/j.yexcr.2019.04.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2018] [Revised: 03/25/2019] [Accepted: 04/05/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Many FDA-approved anti-cancer therapies, targeted toward a wide array of molecular targets and signaling networks, have been demonstrated to activate the unfolded protein response (UPR). Despite a critical role for UPR signaling in the apoptotic execution of cancer cells by many of these compounds, the authors are currently unaware of any instance whereby a cancer drug was developed with the UPR as the intended target. With the essential role of the UPR as a driving force in the genesis and maintenance of the malignant phenotype, a great number of pre-clinical studies have surged into the medical literature describing the ability of dozens of compounds to induce UPR signaling in a myriad of cancer models. The focus of the current work is to review the literature and explore the role of the UPR as a mediator of chemotherapy-induced cell death in squamous cell carcinomas of the head and neck (HNSCC) and oral cavity (OCSCC), with an emphasis on preclinical studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel W Cole
- Department of Otolaryngology - Head and Neck Surgery, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, USA
| | - Peter F Svider
- Department of Otolaryngology - Head and Neck Surgery, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, USA
| | - Kerolos G Shenouda
- Department of Otolaryngology - Head and Neck Surgery, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, USA
| | - Paul B Lee
- Oakland University William Beaumont School of Medicine, Rochester Hills, Michigan, USA
| | - Nicholas G Yoo
- Department of Otolaryngology - Head and Neck Surgery, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, USA
| | - Thomas M McLeod
- Department of Otolaryngology - Head and Neck Surgery, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, USA
| | - Sean A Mutchnick
- Department of Otolaryngology - Head and Neck Surgery, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, USA
| | - George H Yoo
- Department of Otolaryngology - Head and Neck Surgery, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, USA; Barbara Ann Karmanos Cancer Institute, Detroit, MI, USA
| | - Randal J Kaufman
- Degenerative Diseases Program, Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Michael U Callaghan
- Carman and Ann Adams Department of Pediatrics, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, USA; Children's Hospital of Michigan, Detroit Medical Center, Detroit, MI, USA
| | - Andrew M Fribley
- Department of Otolaryngology - Head and Neck Surgery, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, USA; Carman and Ann Adams Department of Pediatrics, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, USA; Barbara Ann Karmanos Cancer Institute, Detroit, MI, USA; Children's Hospital of Michigan, Detroit Medical Center, Detroit, MI, USA; Molecular Therapeutics Program, Barbara Ann Karmanos Cancer Institute, Detroit, MI, USA.
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Bierbaumer L, Schwarze UY, Gruber R, Neuhaus W. Cell culture models of oral mucosal barriers: A review with a focus on applications, culture conditions and barrier properties. Tissue Barriers 2018; 6:1479568. [PMID: 30252599 PMCID: PMC6389128 DOI: 10.1080/21688370.2018.1479568] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Understanding the function of oral mucosal epithelial barriers is essential for a plethora of research fields such as tumor biology, inflammation and infection diseases, microbiomics, pharmacology, drug delivery, dental and biomarker research. The barrier properties are comprised by a physical, a transport and a metabolic barrier, and all these barrier components play pivotal roles in the communication between saliva and blood. The sum of all epithelia of the oral cavity and salivary glands is defined as the blood-saliva barrier. The functionality of the barrier is regulated by its microenvironment and often altered during diseases. A huge array of cell culture models have been developed to mimic specific parts of the blood-saliva barrier, but no ultimate standard in vitro models have been established. This review provides a comprehensive overview about developed in vitro models of oral mucosal barriers, their applications, various cultivation protocols and corresponding barrier properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa Bierbaumer
- a Competence Unit Molecular Diagnostics, Center Health and Bioresources, Austrian Institute of Technology (AIT) GmbH , Vienna , Austria
| | - Uwe Yacine Schwarze
- b Department of Oral Biology , School of Dentistry, Medical University of Vienna , Vienna , Austria.,c Austrian Cluster for Tissue Regeneration , Vienna , Austria
| | - Reinhard Gruber
- b Department of Oral Biology , School of Dentistry, Medical University of Vienna , Vienna , Austria.,c Austrian Cluster for Tissue Regeneration , Vienna , Austria.,d Department of Periodontology , School of Dental Medicine, University of Bern , Bern , Switzerland
| | - Winfried Neuhaus
- a Competence Unit Molecular Diagnostics, Center Health and Bioresources, Austrian Institute of Technology (AIT) GmbH , Vienna , Austria
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Zahedipour F, Dalirfardouei R, Karimi G, Jamialahmadi K. Molecular mechanisms of anticancer effects of Glucosamine. Biomed Pharmacother 2017; 95:1051-1058. [PMID: 28922722 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2017.08.122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2017] [Revised: 08/09/2017] [Accepted: 08/29/2017] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Glucosamine is an amino sugar that is produced naturally in human body. It is an essential carbohydrate component of many cellular glycoproteins, glycolipids, and glycosaminoglycans (GAGs). This popular over-the-counter supplement is also found in the exoskeleton of crustaceans. Glucosamine and its derivatives have a long history in medicine for inflammatory conditions specially to relieve arthritis. This dietary supplement has numerous biological and pharmacological properties, including anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-aging, anti-fibrotic, neuroprotective and cardioprotective activities. Many studies have shown that glucosamine has anti-cancer activity through influence on biological pathways involved in cell death, apoptosis, cell proliferation, and angiogenesis. Accordingly, this comprehensive review summarizes anti-cancer molecular mechanisms of glucosamine in details.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fatemeh Zahedipour
- Cellular and Molecular Biology Research Center, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
| | - Razieh Dalirfardouei
- Department of Medical Biotechnology, School of Medicine, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran.
| | - Gholamreza Karimi
- Pharmaceutical Research Center and School of Pharmacy, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran.
| | - Khadijeh Jamialahmadi
- Biotechnology Research Center, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran; Department of Medical Biotechnology, School of Medicine, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran.
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Jung AY, Heo MJ, Kim YH. Glucosamine has an antiallergic effect in mice with allergic asthma and rhinitis. Int Forum Allergy Rhinol 2017; 7:763-769. [PMID: 28558148 DOI: 10.1002/alr.21967] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2017] [Revised: 04/18/2017] [Accepted: 05/02/2017] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Glucosamine (GlcN) is generally used as a dietary supplement because of its antiinflammatory effects. We evaluated the antiallergic effect of GlcN in mice with allergic asthma and rhinitis. METHODS Thirty-two mice were allocated equally into 4 groups (n = 8). In group A (control), we performed intraperitoneal/intranasal challenge using sterile saline. In group B (asthma/rhinitis), we used ovalbumin for intraperitoneal/intranasal challenge to induce allergic asthma and rhinitis. In groups C and D (GlcN treatment), mice were given 1% and 5% GlcN throughout the period of ovalbumin challenge, respectively. We measured serum total and ovalbumin-specific immunoglobulin E (IgE), cytokine titers (interleukin-1, -4, -5, -6, -10, and -17; tumor necrosis factor-α; and interferon-γ), and the number of inflammatory cells (eosinophils, neutrophils, lymphocytes) in bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid. We also performed histopathologic examination of the lung and nasal cavity. Finally, we performed real-time polymerase chain reaction for the genes Bcl-2, EC-SOD, VEGF, caspase-3, Bax, COX-2, Hif-1α, and heme oxygenase-1. RESULTS Compared with group B, group D had significant serum total and ovalbumin-specific IgE decreases after GlcN treatment (p < 0.05). Titers for IL-4, IL-5, IL-6, and IL-17 in BAL fluid were significantly decreased in group D (p < 0.05). Eosinophils in BAL fluid were significantly decreased in group D compared with group B (p < 0.05). Groups C and D showed significant improvement of inflammation compared with group B. Group D had significant downregulation of EC-SOD, Bax, Hif-1α, and heme oxygenase-1 compared with group B. CONCLUSION GlcN had a significant antiallergic effect in mice with allergic asthma and rhinitis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ah-Yeoun Jung
- WCSL of INtegrated Human Airway-on-a-chip, Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Inha University, Incheon, Korea
| | - Min-Jeong Heo
- WCSL of INtegrated Human Airway-on-a-chip, Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Inha University, Incheon, Korea
| | - Young Hyo Kim
- WCSL of INtegrated Human Airway-on-a-chip, Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Inha University, Incheon, Korea
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Molecular mechanisms and biomedical applications of glucosamine as a potential multifunctional therapeutic agent. Life Sci 2016; 152:21-9. [PMID: 27012765 DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2016.03.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2015] [Revised: 03/10/2016] [Accepted: 03/11/2016] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Glucosamine and its acetylated derivative, N-acetyl glucosamine, are naturally occurring amino sugars found in human body. They are important components of glycoproteins, proteoglycans and glycosaminoglycans. Scientific studies have supported that glucosamine has the beneficial pharmacological effects to relieve osteoarthritis symptoms. Glucosamine can also be as a promising candidate for the prevention and/or treatment of some other diseases due to its anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory activities. Most of its function is exerted by modulation of inflammatory responses especially through Nuclear Factor-κB (NF-κB) that can control inflammatory cytokine production and cell survival. In this review, we present a concise update on additional new therapeutic applications of glucosamine including treatment of cardiovascular disease, neurological deficits, skin disorders, cancer and the molecular mechanistic rationale for these uses. This article will also examine safety profile and adverse effects of glucosamine in human.
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Chou WY, Chuang KH, Sun D, Lee YH, Kao PH, Lin YY, Wang HW, Wu YL. Inhibition of PKC-Induced COX-2 and IL-8 Expression in Human Breast Cancer Cells by Glucosamine. J Cell Physiol 2015; 230:2240-51. [DOI: 10.1002/jcp.24955] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2014] [Accepted: 02/05/2015] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Wan-Yu Chou
- Department of Physiology; School of Medicine; National Yang-Ming University; Taipei Taiwan
| | - Kun-Han Chuang
- Department of Physiology; School of Medicine; National Yang-Ming University; Taipei Taiwan
| | - David Sun
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology; Cheng Hsin General Hospital; Taipei Taiwan
| | - Yu-Hsiu Lee
- Institute of Microbiology and Immunology; School of Life Sciences; National Yang-Ming University; Taipei Taiwan
| | - Pu-Hong Kao
- Department of Physiology; School of Medicine; National Yang-Ming University; Taipei Taiwan
| | - Yen-Yu Lin
- Department of Physiology; School of Medicine; National Yang-Ming University; Taipei Taiwan
| | - Hsei-Wei Wang
- Institute of Microbiology and Immunology; School of Life Sciences; National Yang-Ming University; Taipei Taiwan
| | - Yuh-Lin Wu
- Department of Physiology; School of Medicine; National Yang-Ming University; Taipei Taiwan
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Jamialahmadi K, Arasteh O, Matbou Riahi M, Mehri S, Riahi-Zanjani B, Karimi G. Protective effects of glucosamine hydrochloride against free radical-induced erythrocytes damage. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND PHARMACOLOGY 2014; 38:212-219. [PMID: 24959958 DOI: 10.1016/j.etap.2014.05.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2013] [Revised: 05/26/2014] [Accepted: 05/30/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Glucosamine (GlcN) is an important precursor in the biochemical synthesis of glycosylated proteins and lipids in human body. It gains importance because of its contribution to human health and its multiple biological and therapeutic effects. In this study, the in vitro oxidative hemolysis of rat erythrocyte was used as a model to study the potential protective effect of glucosamine hydrochloride against free radical-induced damage of biological membranes. Glucosamine hydrochloride exhibited dose-dependent DPPH antioxidant activity. Oxidative hemolysis and lipid/protein peroxidation of erythrocytes induced by a water-soluble free radical initiator 2,2'-azobis (2-amidinopropane) dihydrochloride (AAPH) were significantly suppressed by GlcN in a time and dose dependent manner. GlcN also prevented the depletion of cytosolic antioxidant glutathione (GSH) in erythrocytes. These results indicated that glucosamine hydrochloride efficiently protected erythrocytes against free radicals and it could be recommended as a pharmaceutical supplement to alleviate oxidative stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Khadijeh Jamialahmadi
- Biotechnology Research Center, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran; Department of Medical Biotechnology, School of Medicine, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Omid Arasteh
- School of Pharmacy, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Maryam Matbou Riahi
- Department of Medical Biotechnology, School of Medicine, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Soghra Mehri
- Pharmaceutical Research Center, Department of Pharmacodynamics and Toxicology, School of Pharmacy, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Bamdad Riahi-Zanjani
- Medical Toxicology Research Center, School of Medicine, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Gholamreza Karimi
- Medical Toxicology Research Center and Pharmacy School, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran.
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Weimer S, Priebs J, Kuhlow D, Groth M, Priebe S, Mansfeld J, Merry TL, Dubuis S, Laube B, Pfeiffer AF, Schulz TJ, Guthke R, Platzer M, Zamboni N, Zarse K, Ristow M. D-Glucosamine supplementation extends life span of nematodes and of ageing mice. Nat Commun 2014; 5:3563. [PMID: 24714520 PMCID: PMC3988823 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms4563] [Citation(s) in RCA: 154] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2014] [Accepted: 03/05/2014] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
D-Glucosamine (GlcN) is a freely available and commonly used dietary supplement potentially promoting cartilage health in humans, which also acts as an inhibitor of glycolysis. Here we show that GlcN, independent of the hexosamine pathway, extends Caenorhabditis elegans life span by impairing glucose metabolism that activates AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK/AAK-2) and increases mitochondrial biogenesis. Consistent with the concept of mitohormesis, GlcN promotes increased formation of mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS) culminating in increased expression of the nematodal amino acid-transporter 1 (aat-1) gene. Ameliorating mitochondrial ROS formation or impairment of aat-1-expression abolishes GlcN-mediated life span extension in an NRF2/SKN-1-dependent fashion. Unlike other calorie restriction mimetics, such as 2-deoxyglucose, GlcN extends life span of ageing C57BL/6 mice, which show an induction of mitochondrial biogenesis, lowered blood glucose levels, enhanced expression of several murine amino-acid transporters, as well as increased amino-acid catabolism. Taken together, we provide evidence that GlcN extends life span in evolutionary distinct species by mimicking a low-carbohydrate diet.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra Weimer
- Energy Metabolism Laboratory, ETH Zürich (Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich), Zürich CH-8603, Switzerland
- German Institute of Human Nutrition Potsdam-Rehbrücke, D-14558 Nuthetal, Germany
- These authors contributed equally to the work
| | - Josephine Priebs
- Department of Human Nutrition, Institute of Nutrition, University of Jena, D-07743 Jena, Germany
- These authors contributed equally to the work
| | - Doreen Kuhlow
- German Institute of Human Nutrition Potsdam-Rehbrücke, D-14558 Nuthetal, Germany
- Department of Human Nutrition, Institute of Nutrition, University of Jena, D-07743 Jena, Germany
| | - Marco Groth
- Genome Analysis Group, Leibniz Institute for Age Research, Fritz-Lipmann-Institute, D-07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Steffen Priebe
- Systems Biology and Bioinformatics Group, Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology, Hans-Knöll-Institute, D-07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Johannes Mansfeld
- Energy Metabolism Laboratory, ETH Zürich (Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich), Zürich CH-8603, Switzerland
- Department of Human Nutrition, Institute of Nutrition, University of Jena, D-07743 Jena, Germany
- DFG Graduate School of Adaptive Stress Response #1715, D-07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Troy L. Merry
- Energy Metabolism Laboratory, ETH Zürich (Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich), Zürich CH-8603, Switzerland
| | - Sébastien Dubuis
- Institute of Molecular Systems Biology, ETH Zürich (Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich), Zürich CH-8093, Switzerland
| | - Beate Laube
- Energy Metabolism Laboratory, ETH Zürich (Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich), Zürich CH-8603, Switzerland
- Department of Human Nutrition, Institute of Nutrition, University of Jena, D-07743 Jena, Germany
| | - Andreas F. Pfeiffer
- German Institute of Human Nutrition Potsdam-Rehbrücke, D-14558 Nuthetal, Germany
| | - Tim J. Schulz
- German Institute of Human Nutrition Potsdam-Rehbrücke, D-14558 Nuthetal, Germany
| | - Reinhard Guthke
- Systems Biology and Bioinformatics Group, Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology, Hans-Knöll-Institute, D-07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Matthias Platzer
- Genome Analysis Group, Leibniz Institute for Age Research, Fritz-Lipmann-Institute, D-07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Nicola Zamboni
- Institute of Molecular Systems Biology, ETH Zürich (Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich), Zürich CH-8093, Switzerland
| | - Kim Zarse
- Energy Metabolism Laboratory, ETH Zürich (Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich), Zürich CH-8603, Switzerland
- Department of Human Nutrition, Institute of Nutrition, University of Jena, D-07743 Jena, Germany
| | - Michael Ristow
- Energy Metabolism Laboratory, ETH Zürich (Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich), Zürich CH-8603, Switzerland
- German Institute of Human Nutrition Potsdam-Rehbrücke, D-14558 Nuthetal, Germany
- Department of Human Nutrition, Institute of Nutrition, University of Jena, D-07743 Jena, Germany
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Chen F, Liu Y, Wang S, Guo X, Shi P, Wang W, Xu B. Triptolide, a Chinese herbal extract, enhances drug sensitivity of resistant myeloid leukemia cell lines through downregulation of HIF-1α and Nrf2. Pharmacogenomics 2014; 14:1305-17. [PMID: 23930677 DOI: 10.2217/pgs.13.122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
AIM To explore whether triptolide (TPL) can enhance drug sensitivity of resistant myeloid leukemia cell lines through downregulation of HIF-1α and Nrf2. MATERIALS & METHODS HL60/A and K562/G cells were subjected to different treatments and thereafter an methyl thiazole tetrazolium bromide assay, flow cytometry, western blot and real-time PCR were used to determine IC₅₀, apoptotic status and expression of Nrf2, HIF-1α and their target genes. RESULTS Doxorubicin- or imatinib-induced apoptosis was enhanced when anticancer agents were used in combination with TPL. When combined with TPL, both doxorubicin and imatinib downregulate Nrf2 and HIF-1α expression at protein and mRNA levels. Genes downstream of Nrf2, for example, NQO1, GSR and HO-1, as well as target genes of HIF-1α, for example, BNIP3, VEGF and CAIX are also downregulated at the mRNA level. CONCLUSION TPL is able to enhance drug sensitivity of resistant myeloid leukemia cell lines through downregulation of HIF-1α and Nrf2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Feili Chen
- Department of Hematology, Nanfang Hospital, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou 510515, PR China
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JO JEONGRANG, PARK YUKYOUNG, JANG BYEONGCHURL. Short-term treatment with glucosamine hydrochloride specifically downregulates hypoxia-inducible factor-1α at the protein level in YD-8 human tongue cancer cells. Int J Oncol 2014; 44:1699-706. [DOI: 10.3892/ijo.2014.2336] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2013] [Accepted: 02/04/2014] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
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Jamialahmadi K, Soltani F, Nabavi fard M, Behravan J, Mosaffa F. Assessment of protective effects of glucosamine and N-acetyl glucosamine against DNA damage induced by hydrogen peroxide in human lymphocytes. Drug Chem Toxicol 2014; 37:427-32. [DOI: 10.3109/01480545.2013.878951] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
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Ogunsina M, Pan H, Samadder P, Arthur G, Schweizer F. Structure activity relationships of N-linked and diglycosylated glucosamine-based antitumor glycerolipids. Molecules 2013; 18:15288-304. [PMID: 24335578 PMCID: PMC6270653 DOI: 10.3390/molecules181215288] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2013] [Revised: 12/03/2013] [Accepted: 12/04/2013] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
1-O-Hexadecyl-2-O-methyl-3-O-(2'-amino-2'-deoxy-β-d-glucopyranosyl)-sn-glycerol (1) was previously reported to show potent in vitro antitumor activity on a range of cancer cell lines derived from breast, pancreas and prostate cancer. This compound was not toxic to mice and was inactive against breast tumor xenografts in mice. This inactivity was attributed to hydrolysis of the glycosidic linkage by glycosidases. Here three N-linked (glycosylamide) analogs 2–4, one triazole-linked analog 5 of 1 as well as two diglycosylated analogs 6 and 7 with different stereochemistry at the C2-position of the glycerol moiety were synthesized and their antitumor activity against breast (JIMT-1, BT-474, MDA-MB-231), pancreas (MiaPaCa2) and prostrate (DU145, PC3) cancer cell lines was determined. The diglycosylated analogs 1-O-hexadecyl-2(R)-, 3-O-di-(2'-amino-2'-deoxy-β-d-glucopyranosyl)-sn-glycerol (7) and the 1:1 diastereomeric mixture of 1-O-hexadecyl-2(R/S), 3-O-di-(2'-amino-2'-deoxy-β-d-glucopyranosyl)-sn-glycerol (6) showed the most potent cytotoxic activity at CC50 values of 17.5 µM against PC3 cell lines. The replacement of the O-glycosidic linkage by a glycosylamide or a glycosyltriazole linkage showed little or no activity at highest concentration tested (30 µM), whereas the replacement of the glycerol moiety by triazole resulted in CC50 values in the range of 20 to 30 µM. In conclusion, the replacement of the O-glycosidic linkage by an N-glycosidic linkage or triazole-linkage resulted in about a two to three fold loss in activity, whereas the replacement of the methoxy group on the glycerol backbone by a second glucosamine moiety did not improve the activity. The stereochemistry at the C2-position of the glycero backbone has minimal effect on the anticancer activities of these diglycosylated analogs.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Frank Schweizer
- Department of Chemistry, University of Manitoba, 144 Dysart Rd, Winnipeg, MB R3T 2N2, Canada.
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Anabolic-androgenic steroids induce apoptosis and NOS2 (nitric-oxide synthase 2) in adult rat Leydig cells following in vivo exposure. Reprod Toxicol 2012; 34:686-93. [PMID: 23085480 DOI: 10.1016/j.reprotox.2012.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2012] [Revised: 08/31/2012] [Accepted: 10/02/2012] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS) are synthetic derivatives of testosterone (T) predominantly taken as drugs of abuse. Using in vivo treatment of adult male rats we investigated the effects of testosterone enanthate (TE) a widely abused AAS, on apoptosis of Leydig cells. Increased T and decreased luteinizing hormone levels in serum and decreased intra-testicular T values were found in 2 and 10 weeks treated groups. Two weeks of TE-treatment stimulated the expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (NOS2) followed by increased NO production, decreased mitochondrial membrane potential and increased prevalence of Leydig cell apoptosis. This was prevented by in vivo administration of androgen receptor blocker. The induced NOS2 level and apoptosis returned to control levels after 10 weeks of TE-treatment but testes contained fewer Leydig cells. Overall, AAS in addition to reduced steroidogenesis induce transient increase of Leydig cells apoptotic rate through mechanism associated with androgen receptor, most likely involving NOS2 induction.
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