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Shatursky OY, Krisanova NV, Pozdnyakova N, Pastukhov AO, Dudarenko M, Kalynovska L, Shkrabak AA, Veklich TO, Selikhova AI, Cherenok SO, Borisova TA, Kalchenko VI, Kosterin SO. Substitution of bridge carbons for sulphur in calix[4]arene-bis-α-hydroxymethylphosphonic acid transformed mobile carrier into ionic channel accompanied with evoked muscle contraction and impaired neurotransmission powered by membrane action of resulting thiocalix[4]arene-bis-α-hydroxymethylphosphonic acid. Toxicol In Vitro 2024; 98:105815. [PMID: 38636607 DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2024.105815] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2023] [Revised: 04/02/2024] [Accepted: 04/08/2024] [Indexed: 04/20/2024]
Abstract
The action of calix[4]arenes C-424, C-425 and C-1193 has been investigated on suspended cholesterol/egg phosphatidylcholine lipid bilayer in a voltage-clamp mode. Comparative analysis with the membrane action by calix[4]arene-bis-α-hydroxymethylphosphonic acid (C-99) has shown that the substitution of bridge carbons for sulphur and addition of another methyl group to two alkyl tales in the lower rim of former dipropoxycalix[4]arene C-99 transformed mobile carrier that C-99 created in lipid bilayer (Shatursky et al., 2014) into a transmembrane pore as exposure of the bilayer membrane to sulphur-containing derivative dibutoxythiocalix[4]arene C-1193 resulted in microscopic transmembrane current patterns indicative of a channel-like mode of facilitated diffusion. Within all calix[4]arenes tested a net steady-state voltage-dependent transmembrane current was readily achieved only after addition of calix[4]-arene C-1193. In comparison with the membrane action of C-99 the current induced by calix[4]-arene C-1193 exhibited a much weakened anion selectivity passing slightly more current at positive potentials applied from the side of bilayer membrane to which the calix[4]-arene was added. Testing C-1193 for the membrane action against smooth muscle cells of rat uterus or swine myometrium and synaptosomes of rat brain nerve terminals revealed an increase in intracellular concentration of Ca2+ with reduction of the effective hydrodynamic diameter of the smooth muscle cells and enhanced basal extracellular level of neurotransmitters (glutamate and γ-aminobutyric acid) after C-1193-induced depolarization of the nerve terminals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oleg Ya Shatursky
- Department of Neurochemistry, Palladin Institute of Biochemistry, NAS of Ukraine, Leontovich Str., 9, Kyiv 01030, Ukraine.
| | - Natalia V Krisanova
- Department of Neurochemistry, Palladin Institute of Biochemistry, NAS of Ukraine, Leontovich Str., 9, Kyiv 01030, Ukraine
| | - Natalia Pozdnyakova
- Department of Neurochemistry, Palladin Institute of Biochemistry, NAS of Ukraine, Leontovich Str., 9, Kyiv 01030, Ukraine
| | - Artem O Pastukhov
- Department of Neurochemistry, Palladin Institute of Biochemistry, NAS of Ukraine, Leontovich Str., 9, Kyiv 01030, Ukraine
| | - Marina Dudarenko
- Department of Neurochemistry, Palladin Institute of Biochemistry, NAS of Ukraine, Leontovich Str., 9, Kyiv 01030, Ukraine
| | - Lilia Kalynovska
- Department of Neurochemistry, Palladin Institute of Biochemistry, NAS of Ukraine, Leontovich Str., 9, Kyiv 01030, Ukraine
| | - Alexander A Shkrabak
- Department of Muscle Biochemistry, Palladin Institute of Biochemistry, NAS of Ukraine, Leontovich Str., 9, Kyiv 01030, Ukraine
| | - Tatiana O Veklich
- Department of Muscle Biochemistry, Palladin Institute of Biochemistry, NAS of Ukraine, Leontovich Str., 9, Kyiv 01030, Ukraine
| | - Anna I Selikhova
- Institute of Organic Chemistry, NAS of Ukraine, Murmanska Str., 5, Kyiv 02660, Ukraine
| | - Serhii O Cherenok
- Institute of Organic Chemistry, NAS of Ukraine, Murmanska Str., 5, Kyiv 02660, Ukraine
| | - Tatiana A Borisova
- Department of Neurochemistry, Palladin Institute of Biochemistry, NAS of Ukraine, Leontovich Str., 9, Kyiv 01030, Ukraine
| | - Vitaly I Kalchenko
- Institute of Organic Chemistry, NAS of Ukraine, Murmanska Str., 5, Kyiv 02660, Ukraine
| | - Sergyi O Kosterin
- Department of Muscle Biochemistry, Palladin Institute of Biochemistry, NAS of Ukraine, Leontovich Str., 9, Kyiv 01030, Ukraine
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Choi JH, Kim K. Polyhexamethylene Guanidine Phosphate Enhanced Procoagulant Activity through Oxidative-Stress-Mediated Phosphatidylserine Exposure in Platelets. TOXICS 2024; 12:50. [PMID: 38251006 PMCID: PMC10820372 DOI: 10.3390/toxics12010050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2023] [Revised: 01/04/2024] [Accepted: 01/05/2024] [Indexed: 01/23/2024]
Abstract
Polyhexamethylene guanidine phosphate (PHMG-p) is a common biocidal disinfectant that is widely used in industry and household products. However, PHMG-p was misused as a humidifier disinfectant (HD) in South Korea, which had fatal health effects. Various health problems including cardiovascular diseases were observed in HD-exposed groups. However, the potential underlying mechanism of HD-associated cardiovascular diseases is poorly understood. Here, we examined the procoagulant activity of platelets caused by PHMG-p and clarified the underlying mechanism. PHMG-p enhanced phosphatidylserine (PS) exposure through alteration of phospholipid transporters, scramblase, and flippase. Intracellular calcium elevation, intracellular ATP depletion, and caspase-3 activation appeared to underlie phospholipid transporter dysregulation caused by PHMG-p, which was mediated by oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction. Notably, antioxidant enzyme catalase and calcium chelator EGTA reversed PHMG-p-induced PS exposure and thrombin generation, confirming the contributive role of oxidative stress and intracellular calcium in the procoagulant effects of PHMG-p. These series of events led to procoagulant activation of platelets, which was revealed as enhanced thrombin generation. Collectively, PHMG-p triggered procoagulant activation of platelets, which may promote prothrombotic risks and cardiovascular diseases. These findings improve our understanding of HD-associated cardiovascular diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Keunyoung Kim
- College of Pharmacy, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon 24341, Republic of Korea;
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Leem JH, Jeon HE, Nam H, Kim HC, Joa KL. A 2-day cardiopulmonary exercise test in chronic fatigue syndrome patients who were exposed to humidifier disinfectants. Environ Anal Health Toxicol 2022; 37:e2022033-0. [PMID: 36916046 PMCID: PMC10014750 DOI: 10.5620/eaht.2022033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2022] [Accepted: 10/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Some survivors of humidifier disinfectants (HDs) complain of chronic, inexplicable fatigue, and post-exertional malaise (PEM). Two-day cardiopulmonary exercise tests (CPETs) performed 24 hours apart (2-day CPET protocol) are increasingly employed to evaluate PEM and related disabilities among individuals with chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS). The purpose of this study was to assess the reproducibility of CPET variables in individuals who had been exposed to HD and to show that 2-day CPET is an objective means of differentiating between fatigue conditions in people with CFS symptoms who have been exposed to HDs. Twenty-nine HD survivors with CFS symptoms were enrolled in this study. To document and assess PEM in CFS, a 2-day CPET was conducted to measure baseline functional capacity (CPET1) and provoke PEM. Twenty-four hours later, a second CPET assessed changes in related variables, focusing on PEM effects on functional capacity. This CPET also measured changes in energy production and physiological function, objectively documenting PEM effects. In the 2-day CPET, the peak oxygen consumption (VO2peak), VO2 at ventilatory threshold (VO2@VT), time to reach VO2peak, and time to reach VO2@VT were significantly decreased (p<0.001). The peak O2 pulse and O2 pulse at VT also decreased significantly (p<0.001). A 6-minute walk test revealed significantly decreased distance (p<0.01). This is the first study to conduct a 2-day consecutive CPET in previously exposed HD participants with CFS symptoms. Our results confirm previous work that demonstrated abnormal responses to PEM in CFS patients. Therefore, a 2-day CPET is an objective measure to differentiate fatigue conditions in people with CFS symptoms who have been exposed to HDs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jong-Han Leem
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, College of Medicine, Inha University, Incheon, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyoung-Eun Jeon
- Department of Physical & Rehabilitation Medicine, College of Medicine, Inha University, Incheon, Republic of Korea
| | - Hun Nam
- Department of Physical & Rehabilitation Medicine, College of Medicine, Inha University, Incheon, Republic of Korea
| | - Hwan-Cheol Kim
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, College of Medicine, Inha University, Incheon, Republic of Korea
| | - Kyung-Lim Joa
- Department of Physical & Rehabilitation Medicine, College of Medicine, Inha University, Incheon, Republic of Korea
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Krisanova N, Pozdnyakova N, Pastukhov A, Dudarenko M, Shatursky O, Gnatyuk O, Afonina U, Pyrshev K, Dovbeshko G, Yesylevskyy S, Borisova T. Amphiphilic anti-SARS-CoV-2 drug remdesivir incorporates into the lipid bilayer and nerve terminal membranes influencing excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmission. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA (BBA) - BIOMEMBRANES 2022; 1864:183945. [PMID: 35461828 PMCID: PMC9023372 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamem.2022.183945] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2022] [Revised: 04/03/2022] [Accepted: 04/17/2022] [Indexed: 12/05/2022]
Abstract
Remdesivir is a novel antiviral drug, which is active against the SARS-CoV-2 virus. Remdesivir is known to accumulate in the brain but it is not clear whether it influences the neurotransmission. Here we report diverse and pronounced effects of remdesivir on transportation and release of excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters in rat cortex nerve terminals (synaptosomes) in vitro. Direct incorporation of remdesivir molecules into the cellular membranes was shown by FTIR spectroscopy, planar phospholipid bilayer membranes and computational techniques. Remdesivir decreases depolarization-induced exocytotic release of L-[14C] glutamate and [3H] GABA, and also [3H] GABA uptake and extracellular level in synaptosomes in a dose-dependent manner. Fluorimetric studies confirmed remdesivir-induced impairment of exocytosis in nerve terminals and revealed a decrease in synaptic vesicle acidification. Our data suggest that remdesivir dosing during antiviral therapy should be precisely controlled to prevent possible neuromodulatory action at the presynaptic level. Further studies of neurotropic and membranotropic effects of remdesivir are necessary.
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Disruption of Membrane Integrity as a Molecular Initiating Event Determines the Toxicity of Polyhexamethylene Guanidine Phosphate Depending on the Routes of Exposure. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23063289. [PMID: 35328708 PMCID: PMC8955148 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23063289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2022] [Revised: 03/17/2022] [Accepted: 03/17/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Polyhexamethylene guanidine phosphate (PHMG-P), a cationic biocide, is widely used in household products due to its strong bactericidal activity and low toxicity. However, it causes fatal lung damage when inhaled. In this study, we investigated why PHMG-P causes fatal lung injury when inhaled, and demonstrated that the disruption of membrane integrity through ionic interaction—a molecular initiating event of PHMG-P—determines toxicity. Mice were injected intravenously with 0.9 or 7.2 mg/kg PHMG-P (IV group), or instilled intratracheally with 0.9 mg/kg PHMG-P (ITI group); they were euthanatized at 4 h and on days 1 and 7 after treatment. Increased total BAL cell count and proinflammatory cytokine production, along with fibrotic changes in the lungs, were detected in the ITI group only. Levels of hepatic enzymes and hepatic serum amyloid A mRNA expression were markedly upregulated in the 7.2 mg/kg IV and ITI groups at 4 h or day 1 after treatment, but returned to baseline. No pathological findings were detected in the heart, liver, or kidneys. To simulate the IV injection, A549, THP-1, and HepG2 cells were treated with PHMG-P in cell culture media supplemented with different serum concentrations. Increased serum concentration was associated with an increase in cell viability. These results support the idea that direct contact between PHMG-P and cell membranes is necessary for PHMG-induced toxicity.
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Dias FGG, Pereira LDF, Parreira RLT, Veneziani RCS, Bianchi TC, Fontes VFNDP, Galvani MDC, Cerce DDP, Martins CHG, Rinaldi-Neto F, Ferreira NH, da Silva LHD, de Oliveira LTS, Esperandim TR, de Sousa FA, Ambrósio SR, Tavares DC. Evaluation of the antiseptic and wound healing potential of polyhexamethylene guanidine hydrochloride as well as its toxic effects. Eur J Pharm Sci 2021; 160:105739. [PMID: 33524503 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejps.2021.105739] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2020] [Revised: 12/24/2020] [Accepted: 01/26/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The synthetic polyhexamethylene guanidine hydrochloride (PHMGH) polymer presents antifungal and antimicrobial activities in vitro. However, in vivo reports regarding its antiseptic and healing activity are scarce in the scientific literature. Thus, the present study aimed to evaluate the antimicrobial and healing effects, as well as toxicological parameters, of a topical solution containing 0.5% PHMGH (Akwaton®) in the treatment of superficial skin wounds experimentally induced on the dorsum of rodents. In addition, non-clinical safety studies were also conducted for use in human health, such as acute oral toxicity and genotoxicity tests. Animals did clinically not present dermatitis. After two days of topical treatment, PHMGH showed a significant antiseptic effect compared to the untreated group, reducing the number of colony-forming units by 72%, reaching 100% on the fourth day of treatment. The animals treated with PHMGH showed a significant area reduction of the skin lesions in relation to the untreated group, indicating a healing effect of the polymer. Moreover, PHMGH treatment led to a significant increase in fibroblasts when compared to the untreated group, revealing its healing action. No significant differences were observed between the biochemical indicators of hepatoxicity and nephrotoxicity, nor genotoxicity between the PHMGH-treated and the negative control groups. The results of acute oral toxicity showed that PHMGH at 5% presents a lethal dose 50% greater than the 2000 mg/kg. At a concentration of 5%, PHMGH did not show genotoxicity nor cytotoxicity at doses up to 1500 mg/kg through the micronucleus assay in mice. Therefore, 0.5% PHMGH showed an antimicrobial and healing effect, with no toxicity, and could be a promising adjunct in the microbial control of healing wounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernanda Gosuen Gonçalves Dias
- Universidade de Franca, Avenida Dr. Armando Salles de Oliveira, 201 - Parque Universitário, 14404-600, Franca, São Paulo, Brazil.
| | - Lucas de Freitas Pereira
- Universidade de Franca, Avenida Dr. Armando Salles de Oliveira, 201 - Parque Universitário, 14404-600, Franca, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Renato Luis Tame Parreira
- Universidade de Franca, Avenida Dr. Armando Salles de Oliveira, 201 - Parque Universitário, 14404-600, Franca, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Rodrigo Cassio Sola Veneziani
- Universidade de Franca, Avenida Dr. Armando Salles de Oliveira, 201 - Parque Universitário, 14404-600, Franca, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Thamires Chiquini Bianchi
- Universidade de Franca, Avenida Dr. Armando Salles de Oliveira, 201 - Parque Universitário, 14404-600, Franca, São Paulo, Brazil
| | | | - Marina de Carlos Galvani
- Universidade de Franca, Avenida Dr. Armando Salles de Oliveira, 201 - Parque Universitário, 14404-600, Franca, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Danielle Dal Picolo Cerce
- Universidade de Franca, Avenida Dr. Armando Salles de Oliveira, 201 - Parque Universitário, 14404-600, Franca, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Carlos Henrique Gomes Martins
- Universidade Federal de Uberlândia, Av. João Naves de Ávila, 2121 - Santa Mônica, 38408-100, Uberlândia, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Francisco Rinaldi-Neto
- Universidade de Franca, Avenida Dr. Armando Salles de Oliveira, 201 - Parque Universitário, 14404-600, Franca, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Natália Helen Ferreira
- Universidade de Franca, Avenida Dr. Armando Salles de Oliveira, 201 - Parque Universitário, 14404-600, Franca, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Lucas Henrique Domingos da Silva
- Universidade de Franca, Avenida Dr. Armando Salles de Oliveira, 201 - Parque Universitário, 14404-600, Franca, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Lucas Teixeira Souza de Oliveira
- Universidade de Franca, Avenida Dr. Armando Salles de Oliveira, 201 - Parque Universitário, 14404-600, Franca, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Tábata Rodrigues Esperandim
- Universidade de Franca, Avenida Dr. Armando Salles de Oliveira, 201 - Parque Universitário, 14404-600, Franca, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Francielle Aparecida de Sousa
- Universidade de Franca, Avenida Dr. Armando Salles de Oliveira, 201 - Parque Universitário, 14404-600, Franca, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Sérgio Ricardo Ambrósio
- Universidade de Franca, Avenida Dr. Armando Salles de Oliveira, 201 - Parque Universitário, 14404-600, Franca, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Denise Crispim Tavares
- Universidade de Franca, Avenida Dr. Armando Salles de Oliveira, 201 - Parque Universitário, 14404-600, Franca, São Paulo, Brazil
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Ha Y, Koo Y, Park SK, Kim GE, Oh HB, Kim HR, Kwon JH. Liposome leakage and increased cellular permeability induced by guanidine-based oligomers: effects of liposome composition on liposome leakage and human lung epithelial barrier permeability. RSC Adv 2021; 11:32000-32011. [PMID: 35495488 PMCID: PMC9042049 DOI: 10.1039/d1ra05478c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2021] [Accepted: 09/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
In this study, liposome leakage using different liposome compositions and increased cellular permeability of human lung monolayer models induced by PHMG and PHMB were investigated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yeonjeong Ha
- Division of Environmental Science and Ecological Engineering, Korea University, 145 Anam-ro, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul 02841, Republic of Korea
| | - Yerim Koo
- Division of Environmental Science and Ecological Engineering, Korea University, 145 Anam-ro, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul 02841, Republic of Korea
| | - Seon-Kyung Park
- Division of Environmental Science and Ecological Engineering, Korea University, 145 Anam-ro, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul 02841, Republic of Korea
| | - Ga-Eun Kim
- College of Pharmacy, Daegu Catholic University, 13-13 Hayang-ro, Hayang-eup, Gyeongsan 38430, Republic of Korea
| | - Han Bin Oh
- Department of Chemistry, Sogang University, 35 Baekbeom-ro, Mapo-gu, Seoul 04107, Republic of Korea
| | - Ha Ryong Kim
- College of Pharmacy, Daegu Catholic University, 13-13 Hayang-ro, Hayang-eup, Gyeongsan 38430, Republic of Korea
| | - Jung-Hwan Kwon
- Division of Environmental Science and Ecological Engineering, Korea University, 145 Anam-ro, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul 02841, Republic of Korea
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Ha Y, Kwon JH. Effects of lipid membrane composition on the distribution of biocidal guanidine oligomer with solid supported lipid membranes. RSC Adv 2020; 10:22343-22351. [PMID: 35514581 PMCID: PMC9054620 DOI: 10.1039/d0ra03108a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2020] [Accepted: 06/04/2020] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Polyhexamethylene guanidine (PHMG) is a cationic antimicrobial oligomer that has been used prevalently over the past few decades. However, due to the lack of inhalation toxicity assessment of PHMG, it has caused severe health damage, including fatal lung fibrosis, after being used as one of the major active ingredients of humidifier disinfectants in Korea. Because the first step of the entry of PHMG into airway is its association with cell membranes, the distribution of PHMG between lipid membranes and water is very important to know the depositional flux in the respiratory systems and related toxic mechanisms. We developed a quantitative method to determine the distribution constant (Klipw) of PHMG between solid supported lipid membranes and water and evaluated the effects of lipid membrane compositions on the Klipw of PHMG. PHMG accumulated into anionic lipid membranes rapidly compared to into cationic or zwitterionic lipid membranes, suggesting fast adsorption of PHMG onto anionic lipid head groups. Klipw values with anionic/zwitterionic lipid mixtures were higher than Klipw values with anionic lipids only, potentially due to the later phase separation after preferential interaction between PHMG and anionic lipids in lipid mixtures. In addition, Klipw values increased with increasing single acyl chain lipid content in unsaturated lipids and decreasing cholesterol content. These results imply that changes in lipid spontaneous curvature and lipid bilayer packing density also affect the membrane distribution of PHMG. This study experimentally determined the Klipw of PHMG and assessed the effects of lipid membrane composition on Klipw values.![]()
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Affiliation(s)
- Yeonjeong Ha
- Division of Environmental Science and Ecological Engineering, Korea University 145 Anam-ro Seongbuk-gu Seoul 02841 Republic of Korea +82 2 3290 3041
| | - Jung-Hwan Kwon
- Division of Environmental Science and Ecological Engineering, Korea University 145 Anam-ro Seongbuk-gu Seoul 02841 Republic of Korea +82 2 3290 3041
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Sowlati-Hashjin S, Carbone P, Karttunen M. Insights into the Polyhexamethylene Biguanide (PHMB) Mechanism of Action on Bacterial Membrane and DNA: A Molecular Dynamics Study. J Phys Chem B 2020; 124:4487-4497. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcb.0c02609] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Shahin Sowlati-Hashjin
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Western Ontario, 1151 Richmond Street, London, Ontario N6A 5B7, Canada
- The Centre of Advanced Materials and Biomaterials Research, The University of Western Ontario, 1151 Richmond Street, London, Ontario N6A 5B7, Canada
| | - Paola Carbone
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Analytical Science, The University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PL, United Kingdom
| | - Mikko Karttunen
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Western Ontario, 1151 Richmond Street, London, Ontario N6A 5B7, Canada
- The Centre of Advanced Materials and Biomaterials Research, The University of Western Ontario, 1151 Richmond Street, London, Ontario N6A 5B7, Canada
- Department of Applied Mathematics, The University of Western Ontario, 1151 Richmond Street, London, Ontario N6A 5B7, Canada
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