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Vlasveld M, Callegaro G, Fisher C, Eakins J, Walker P, Lok S, van Oost S, de Jong B, Pellegrino-Coppola D, Burger G, Wink S, van de Water B. The integrated stress response-related expression of CHOP due to mitochondrial toxicity is a warning sign for DILI liability. Liver Int 2024; 44:760-775. [PMID: 38217387 DOI: 10.1111/liv.15822] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2023] [Revised: 11/29/2023] [Accepted: 12/07/2023] [Indexed: 01/15/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS Drug-induced liver injury (DILI) is one of the most frequent reasons for failure of drugs in clinical trials or market withdrawal. Early assessment of DILI risk remains a major challenge during drug development. Here, we present a mechanism-based weight-of-evidence approach able to identify certain candidate compounds with DILI liabilities due to mitochondrial toxicity. METHODS A total of 1587 FDA-approved drugs and 378 kinase inhibitors were screened for cellular stress response activation associated with DILI using an imaging-based HepG2 BAC-GFP reporter platform including the integrated stress response (CHOP), DNA damage response (P21) and oxidative stress response (SRXN1). RESULTS In total 389, 219 and 104 drugs were able to induce CHOP-GFP, P21-GFP and SRXN1-GFP expression at 50 μM respectively. Concentration response analysis identified 154 FDA-approved drugs as critical CHOP-GFP inducers. Based on predicted and observed (pre-)clinical DILI liabilities of these drugs, nine antimycotic drugs (e.g. butoconazole, miconazole, tioconazole) and 13 central nervous system (CNS) agents (e.g. duloxetine, fluoxetine) were selected for transcriptomic evaluation using whole-genome RNA-sequencing of primary human hepatocytes. Gene network analysis uncovered mitochondrial processes, NRF2 signalling and xenobiotic metabolism as most affected by the antimycotic drugs and CNS agents. Both the selected antimycotics and CNS agents caused impairment of mitochondrial oxygen consumption in both HepG2 and primary human hepatocytes. CONCLUSIONS Together, the results suggest that early pre-clinical screening for CHOP expression could indicate liability of mitochondrial toxicity in the context of DILI, and, therefore, could serve as an important warning signal to consider during decision-making in drug development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthijs Vlasveld
- Division of Drug Discovery and Safety, Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research (LACDR), Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Giulia Callegaro
- Division of Drug Discovery and Safety, Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research (LACDR), Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | | | | | | | - Samantha Lok
- Division of Drug Discovery and Safety, Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research (LACDR), Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Siddh van Oost
- Division of Drug Discovery and Safety, Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research (LACDR), Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Brechtje de Jong
- Division of Drug Discovery and Safety, Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research (LACDR), Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Damiano Pellegrino-Coppola
- Division of Drug Discovery and Safety, Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research (LACDR), Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Gerhard Burger
- Division of Drug Discovery and Safety, Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research (LACDR), Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Steven Wink
- Division of Drug Discovery and Safety, Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research (LACDR), Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Bob van de Water
- Division of Drug Discovery and Safety, Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research (LACDR), Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
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Machado IF, Miranda RG, Dorta DJ, Rolo AP, Palmeira CM. Targeting Oxidative Stress with Polyphenols to Fight Liver Diseases. Antioxidants (Basel) 2023; 12:1212. [PMID: 37371941 DOI: 10.3390/antiox12061212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2023] [Revised: 05/26/2023] [Accepted: 05/31/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are important second messengers in many metabolic processes and signaling pathways. Disruption of the balance between ROS generation and antioxidant defenses results in the overproduction of ROS and subsequent oxidative damage to biomolecules and cellular components that disturb cellular function. Oxidative stress contributes to the initiation and progression of many liver pathologies such as ischemia-reperfusion injury (LIRI), non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Therefore, controlling ROS production is an attractive therapeutic strategy in relation to their treatment. In recent years, increasing evidence has supported the therapeutic effects of polyphenols on liver injury via the regulation of ROS levels. In the current review, we summarize the effects of polyphenols, such as quercetin, resveratrol, and curcumin, on oxidative damage during conditions that induce liver injury, such as LIRI, NAFLD, and HCC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivo F Machado
- CNC-Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, CIBB-Center for Innovative Biomedicine and Biotechnology, University of Coimbra, 3000 Coimbra, Portugal
- IIIUC-Institute of Interdisciplinary Research, University of Coimbra, 3000 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Raul G Miranda
- School of Pharmaceutical Science of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, São Paulo 14040, Brazil
| | - Daniel J Dorta
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Philosophy, Sciences and Letters of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto 14040, Brazil
| | - Anabela P Rolo
- CNC-Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, CIBB-Center for Innovative Biomedicine and Biotechnology, University of Coimbra, 3000 Coimbra, Portugal
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Coimbra, 3000 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Carlos M Palmeira
- CNC-Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, CIBB-Center for Innovative Biomedicine and Biotechnology, University of Coimbra, 3000 Coimbra, Portugal
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Coimbra, 3000 Coimbra, Portugal
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Protective Role of Propolis on Low and High Dose Furan-induced Hepatotoxicity and Oxidative Stress in Rats. J Vet Res 2019; 63:423-431. [PMID: 31572824 PMCID: PMC6749730 DOI: 10.2478/jvetres-2019-0054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2019] [Accepted: 08/12/2019] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction The aim of this study was to evaluate potential protective effects of propolis on furan-induced hepatic damage by assessing the levels of malondialdehyde (MDA) and reduced glutathione (GSH), antioxidant enzyme activities, and histopathological changes in the liver. Material and Methods Albino Wistar rats were divided into six groups: a control, propolis-treated (100 mg/kg b.w./day), low-dose furan-treated (furan-L group; 2 mg/kg b.w./day), high-dose furan-treated (furan-H group; 16 mg/kg b.w./day), furan-L+propolis treated, and furan-H+propolis treated group. Propolis and furan were applied by gavage; propolis for 8 days, and furan for 20 days in furan-L groups and 10 days in furan-H groups. Results While MDA levels were elevated in furan-treated groups, levels of GSH and activities of antioxidant enzymes decreased (p < 0.001). The levels of MDA and GSH and activities of antioxidant enzymes were normal in the furan+propolis groups, especially in the furan-L+propolis group (p < 0.001). While the aspartate transaminase, alanine transaminase, alkaline phosphatase, and lactate pdehydrogenase activities were elevated in the furan-H treated group (p < 0.05 and p < 0.001), they were unchanged in the furan-L treated group. Histopathologically, several lesions were observed in the liver tissues of the furan-treated groups, especially in the higher-dose group. It was determined that these changes were milder in both of the furan+propolis groups. Conclusion The results indicate that propolis exhibits good hepatoprotective and antioxidant potential against furan-induced hepatocellular damage in rats.
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Zaidi SK, Ansari SA, Tabrez S, Naseer MI, Shahwan MJ, Banu N, Al-Qahtani MH. Antioxidant Potential of Solanum nigrum Aqueous Leaves Extract in Modulating Restraint Stress-Induced Changes in Rat's Liver. J Pharm Bioallied Sci 2019; 11:60-68. [PMID: 30906141 PMCID: PMC6394153 DOI: 10.4103/jpbs.jpbs_58_18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction: This study was carried out to evaluate the antioxidant potential of crude extract of Solanum nigrum leaves and its active constituents as treatment against restraint stress in rat’s liver. Methods: For this purpose, male albino Wistar rats were treated with crude extract of leaves and its alkaloid and flavonoid fractions both before and after 6 h of acute restraint stress. Prooxidant status of rat liver was assessed by determining the levels of thiobarbituric acid reactive substances, reduced glutathione, alkaline phosphatase, alanine transaminase, aspartate aminotransferase, and the activities of antioxidant enzymes superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and glutathione S-transferase (GST). Results: Six hours of restraint stress generated oxidative stress in rat’s liver resulted in a significant rise in the level of the aforementioned liver enzymes. On the other hand, SOD, CAT, and GST enzymatic activities showed a significant decline in their level. The administration of crude leaves extract, both before and after stress exposure, significantly prevented the rise in the level of liver enzymes and reverted the activities of studied biochemical parameters toward their normal control values. However, the reversion was found to be more prominent in after-stress group. Conclusion: The aforementioned results highlight the significant antioxidant potential of S. nigrum extracts. On the basis of our study, we suggest the possible use of S. nigrum leaves extract as a nutritional supplement for combating oxidative stress induced damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Syed K Zaidi
- Department of Molecular Biology, Center of Excellence in Genomic Medicine Research, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, KSA
| | - Shakeel A Ansari
- Department of Molecular Biology, Center of Excellence in Genomic Medicine Research, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, KSA
| | - Shams Tabrez
- Fundamental and Applied Biology Group, King Fahd Medical Research Center, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, KSA
| | - Muhammad I Naseer
- Department of Molecular Biology, Center of Excellence in Genomic Medicine Research, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, KSA
| | - Moyad J Shahwan
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, Ajman University, Ajman, UAE
| | - Naheed Banu
- College of Medical Rehabilitation, Qassim University, Buraydah, KSA
| | - Muhammad H Al-Qahtani
- Department of Molecular Biology, Center of Excellence in Genomic Medicine Research, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, KSA
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Brengel C, Thomann A, Schifrin A, Allegretta G, Kamal AAM, Haupenthal J, Schnorr I, Cho SH, Franzblau SG, Empting M, Eberhard J, Hartmann RW. Biophysical Screening of a Focused Library for the Discovery of CYP121 Inhibitors as Novel Antimycobacterials. ChemMedChem 2017; 12:1616-1626. [DOI: 10.1002/cmdc.201700363] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2017] [Revised: 08/04/2017] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Christian Brengel
- Helmholtz Institute for Pharmaceutical Research Saarland, HIPS; Department for Drug Design and Optimization; Campus E8.1 66123 Saarbrücken Germany
| | - Andreas Thomann
- Helmholtz Institute for Pharmaceutical Research Saarland, HIPS; Department for Drug Design and Optimization; Campus E8.1 66123 Saarbrücken Germany
| | - Alexander Schifrin
- Department of Biochemistry; Saarland University; Campus B2.2 66123 Saarbrücken Germany
| | - Giuseppe Allegretta
- Helmholtz Institute for Pharmaceutical Research Saarland, HIPS; Department for Drug Design and Optimization; Campus E8.1 66123 Saarbrücken Germany
| | - Ahmed A. M. Kamal
- Helmholtz Institute for Pharmaceutical Research Saarland, HIPS; Department for Drug Design and Optimization; Campus E8.1 66123 Saarbrücken Germany
| | - Jörg Haupenthal
- Helmholtz Institute for Pharmaceutical Research Saarland, HIPS; Department for Drug Design and Optimization; Campus E8.1 66123 Saarbrücken Germany
| | - Isabell Schnorr
- Helmholtz Institute for Pharmaceutical Research Saarland, HIPS; Department for Drug Design and Optimization; Campus E8.1 66123 Saarbrücken Germany
| | - Sang Hyun Cho
- Institute for Tuberculosis Research; College of Pharmacy; University of Illinois at Chicago; 833 S. Wood Street Chicago IL 60612-7231 USA
| | - Scott G. Franzblau
- Institute for Tuberculosis Research; College of Pharmacy; University of Illinois at Chicago; 833 S. Wood Street Chicago IL 60612-7231 USA
| | - Martin Empting
- Helmholtz Institute for Pharmaceutical Research Saarland, HIPS; Department for Drug Design and Optimization; Campus E8.1 66123 Saarbrücken Germany
| | - Jens Eberhard
- Helmholtz Institute for Pharmaceutical Research Saarland, HIPS; Department for Drug Design and Optimization; Campus E8.1 66123 Saarbrücken Germany
| | - Rolf W. Hartmann
- Helmholtz Institute for Pharmaceutical Research Saarland, HIPS; Department for Drug Design and Optimization; Campus E8.1 66123 Saarbrücken Germany
- Department of Pharmacy; Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry; Saarland University; Campus C2.3 66123 Saarbrücken Germany
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Protective Effect of Brazilian Propolis against Liver Damage with Cholestasis in Rats Treated with α-Naphthylisothiocyanate. EVIDENCE-BASED COMPLEMENTARY AND ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE 2013; 2013:302720. [PMID: 23710219 PMCID: PMC3654703 DOI: 10.1155/2013/302720] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2013] [Revised: 03/24/2013] [Accepted: 03/25/2013] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
We examined the protective effect of Brazilian propolis against liver damage with cholestasis in rats treated with α-naphthylisothiocyanate (ANIT) in comparison with that of vitamin E (VE). Rats orally received Brazilian propolis ethanol extract (BPEE) (25, 50, or 100 mg/kg), VE (250 mg/kg) or vehicle at 12 h after intraperitoneal injection of ANIT (75 mg/kg) and were killed 24 h after the injection. Vehicle-treated rats showed liver cell damage and cholestasis, judging from the levels of serum marker enzymes and components. The vehicle group had increased serum total cholesterol, triglyceride, phospholipid, and lipid peroxide levels, increased hepatic lipid peroxide, reduced glutathione, and ascorbic acid levels and myeloperoxidase activity, and decreased hepatic superoxide dismutase activity. BPEE (50 mg/kg) administered to ANIT-treated rats prevented liver cell damage and cholestasis and attenuated these serum and hepatic biochemical changes except hepatic ascorbic acid, although administered BPEE (25 or 100 mg/kg) was less effective. VE administered to ANIT-treated rats prevented liver cell damage, but not cholestasis, and attenuated increased serum lipid peroxide level, increased hepatic lipid peroxide level and myeloperoxidase activity, and decreased hepatic superoxide dismutase activity. These results indicate that BPEE protects against ANIT-induced liver damage with cholestasis in rats more effectively than VE.
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Nadia BH, Wided K, Kheira B, Hassiba R, Lamia B, Rhouati S, Alyane M, Zellagui A, Lahouel M. Disruption of mitochondrial membrane potential by ferulenol and restoration by propolis extract: antiapoptotic role of propolis. ACTA BIOLOGICA HUNGARICA 2009; 60:385-98. [PMID: 20015830 DOI: 10.1556/abiol.60.2009.4.5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
This paper reports an investigation of the ability of propolis extract (a resinous substance collected by honeybees from various plant sources) to restore the collapse of mitochondrial membrane potential induced by ferulenol, a sesquiterpene prenylated coumarin derivative isolated from the plant Ferula vesceritensis . We show that ferulenol was able to induce the permeability transition pore (PTP) opening. This effect is caused by the interaction of the compound with the mitochondrial respiratory chain, more particularly by the fall of membrane potential and the inhibition of complex II. We have previously demonstrated that this inhibition results from a limitation of electron transfers involved in the respiratory chain and initiated by the reduction of ubiquinone. We hypothesized that the protective effect of propolis could be due to a direct action on mitochondrial functions. So we have investigated in vitro the mitochondrial effects of Algerian propolis using rat liver mitochondria, by analysing their effects on membrane potential, mitochondrial respiration and mitochondrial swelling. We show that propolis extract was able to restore the fall of mitochondrial membrane potential. Taken together these data reveal that propolis extract may be an interesting inhibitor of PTP and provide an additional mechanism by which the natural product propolis extract may restore the mitochondrial membrane potential and to prevent apoptotic process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Boussenane H Nadia
- Université de Jijel Département de Biologie Moléculaire et Cellulaire, Laboratoire de Toxicologie Moléculaire 18000 Jijel Algérie
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BHADAURIA M, SHUKLA S, MATHUR R, AGRAWAL OP, SHRIVASTAVA S, JOHRI S, JOSHI D, SINGH V, MITTAL D, NIRALA SK. Hepatic endogenous defense potential of propolis after mercury intoxication. Integr Zool 2008; 3:311-21. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-4877.2008.00103.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Chen H, Yan X, Zhu P, Lin J. Antioxidant activity and hepatoprotective potential of agaro-oligosaccharides in vitro and in vivo. Nutr J 2006; 5:31. [PMID: 17140450 PMCID: PMC1698930 DOI: 10.1186/1475-2891-5-31] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2006] [Accepted: 12/02/2006] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Agaro-oligosaccharides derived from red seaweed polysaccharide have been reported to possess antioxidant activity. In order to assess the live protective effects of agar-oligosaccharides, we did both in vitro and in vivo studies based on own-made agaro-oligosaccharides, and the structural information of this oligosaccharide was also determined. Method Structure of agaro-oligosaccharides prepared with acid hydrolysis on agar was confirmed by matrix-assisted ultraviolet laser desorption ionization time of flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF-MS) and NMR. The antioxidant effect of agaro-oligosaccharides on intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) was assessed by 2', 7'-dichlorofluorescin diacetate. Carbon tetrachloride was used to induce liver injury, some index including SOD, GSH-Px, MDA, AST, ALT were examined to determine the hepatoprotective effect of agaro-oligosaccharides. Results Agaro-oligosaccharides we got were composed of odd polymerizations with molecular weights ranged from 500 to 2500. Results from intracellular test indicated that agaro-oligosaccharides could significantly scavenge the level of oxidants in the hepatocytes, more beneficially, also associated with the improvement of cell viability In vivo studies of the antioxidant effects on tissue peroxidative damage induced by carbon tetrachloride in rat model indicated that agaro-oligosaccharides could elevate the activity of superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) and decrease the level of malondialdehyde (MDA), glutamate oxaloacetate transaminase (AST), glutamic pyruvic transaminase (ALT) significantly. At 400 mg/kg, MDA level reduced 44 % and 21 % in liver and heart, SOD and GSH-Px increased to highest in liver and serum, while ALT level decreased 22.16 % in serum. Conclusion Overall, the results of the present study indicate that agaro-oligosaccharides can exert their in vitro and in vivo hepatoprotective effect through scavenging oxidative damage induced by ROS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haimin Chen
- Key Laboratory of Marine Biotechnology, Ningbo University, Ningbo, 315211, P. R. China
| | - Xiaojun Yan
- Key Laboratory of Marine Biotechnology, Ningbo University, Ningbo, 315211, P. R. China
| | - Peng Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Marine Biotechnology, Ningbo University, Ningbo, 315211, P. R. China
| | - Jing Lin
- Key Laboratory of Marine Biotechnology, Ningbo University, Ningbo, 315211, P. R. China
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Tavares DC, Mazzaron Barcelos GR, Silva LF, Chacon Tonin CC, Bastos JK. Propolis-induced genotoxicity and antigenotoxicity in Chinese hamster ovary cells. Toxicol In Vitro 2006; 20:1154-8. [PMID: 16682170 DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2006.02.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2005] [Revised: 02/06/2006] [Accepted: 02/26/2006] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Propolis has been used in folk medicine since ancient times and is known for its antimicrobial, antiparasitic, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, antitumoral and antioxidant properties. In view of the great therapeutic interest in propolis and the small number of studies regarding its mechanism of action, the aim of the present study was to evaluate the mutagenic and antimutagenic effects of propolis using Chinese hamster ovary cells. Parameters such as the frequency of chromosome aberrations and mitotic index were analyzed. The results showed that, on one hand, the highest propolis tested concentration displayed a small but significant increase in the frequency of chromosome aberrations, and on the other hand, it was observed that the lowest tested concentration significantly reduced the chromosome damage induced by the chemotherapeutic agent doxorubicin. The present results indicate that propolis shows the characteristic of a "Janus" compound, i.e., propolis is genotoxic at higher concentrations, while at lower concentrations it display a chemopreventive effect on doxorubicin-induced mutagenicity. Flavonoids may be the components of propolis responsible for its both mutagenic and antimutagenic effects, once these compounds may act either as pro-oxidant or as free radicals scavenger, depending on its concentration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Denise Crispim Tavares
- Universidade de Franca, Av. Armando Salles de Oliveira, 201, 14404-600 Franca, São Paulo, Brazil.
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Wang BJ, Lien YH, Su CL, Wu CP, Yu ZR. Fractionation using supercritical CO2 influences the antioxidant and hepatoprotective activity of propolis against liver damage induced by tert-butyl hydroperoxide. Int J Food Sci Technol 2006. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2621.2006.01346.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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