Amelioration of ochratoxin-A induced cytotoxicity by prophylactic treatment of N-Acetyl-L-Tryptophan in human embryonic kidney cells

Unveiling the emerging role of curcumin to alleviate ochratoxin A-induced muscle toxicity in grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella): in vitro and in vivo studies

BACKGROUND

Ochratoxin A (OTA), a globally abundant and extremely hazardous pollutant, is a significant source of contamination in aquafeeds and is responsible for severe food pollution. The developmental toxicity of OTA and the potential relieving strategy of natural products remain unclear. This study screened the substance curcumin (Cur), which had the best effect in alleviating OTA inhibition of myoblast proliferation, from 96 natural products and investigated its effect and mechanism in reducing OTA myotoxicity in vivo and in vitro.

METHODS

A total of 720 healthy juvenile grass carp, with an initial average body weight of 11.06 ± 0.05 g, were randomly assigned into 4 groups: the control group (without OTA and Cur), 1.2 mg/kg OTA group, 400 mg/kg Cur group, and 1.2 mg/kg OTA + 400 mg/kg Cur group. Each treatment consisted of 3 replicates (180 fish) for 60 d.

RESULTS

Firstly, we cultured, purified, and identified myoblasts using the tissue block culture method. Through preliminary screening and re-screening of 96 substances, we examined cell proliferation-related indicators such as cell viability and ultimately found that Cur had the best effect. Secondly, Cur could alleviate OTA-inhibited myoblast differentiation and myofibrillar development-related proteins (MyoG and MYHC) in vivo and in vitro and improve the growth performance of grass carp. Then, Cur could also promote the expression of OTA-inhibited protein synthesis-related proteins (S6K1 and TOR), which was related to the activation of the AKT/TOR signaling pathway. Finally, Cur could downregulate the expression of OTA-enhanced protein degradation-related genes (murf1, foxo3a, and ub), which was related to the inhibition of the FoxO3a signaling pathway.

CONCLUSIONS

In summary, our data demonstrated the effectiveness of Cur in alleviating OTA myotoxicity in vivo and in vitro. This study confirms the rapidity, feasibility, and effectiveness of establishing a natural product screening method targeting myoblasts to alleviate fungal toxin toxicity.

Ochratoxin A Induces Renal Cell Ferroptosis by Disrupting Iron Homeostasis and Increasing ROS

Mycotoxin ochratoxin A (OTA) is a critical food safety concern due to its nephron-toxic effects and is detected in a wide range of food and feedstuffs. OTA nephrotoxicity is related to oxidative stress and damage. However, the mediator(s) of the excessive oxidative stress is unclear. The current study used human kidney cell lines to investigate whether and how intracellular iron contributed to OTA-induced ROS accumulation and how OTA-induced iron-dependent ferroptotic cell death. Our results showed that OTA treatment affected the cell viability and induced the typical characteristics of cell ferroptosis. Furthermore, gene and protein expression results indicated that OTA disrupted iron homeostasis by upregulating the expression levels of iron importer TFR1 and FTH, while downregulating the expression level of iron exporter FPN and dramatically increasing its negative regulator Hepcidin. The changes were consistent with the induction of intracellular iron accumulation and elevated levels of oxidative stress and lipid peroxidation. Additionally, co-treatment with OTA and an iron chelator significantly improved cell viability, reduced cellular total iron and ROS, and reversed OTA-induced changes in iron metabolism gene expression levels. Interestingly, the addition of a ROS scavenger also reversed cell death and changes in mRNA and protein expression levels of iron metabolism genes but to a lesser degree than that of the iron-chelating agent. Our results revealed that OTA induced ferroptosis in renal cells by disrupting iron homeostasis and increasing ROS.

N-acetyl-l-tryptophan (NAT) ameliorates radiation-induced cell death in murine macrophages J774A.1 via regulating redox homeostasis and mitochondrial dysfunction

Ionizing radiation interacts with the immune system and induces molecular damage in the cellular milieu by generating reactive oxygen species (ROS) leading to cell death. The present study was performed to investigate the protective efficacy of N-acetyl-L-tryptophan (NAT) against gamma-radiation-induced cell death in murine macrophage J774A.1 cells. The radioprotective efficacy of NAT was evaluated in terms of cell survivability, effect on antioxidant enzyme activity, and free radicals inhibition. Radioprotective efficacy of NAT pretreatment to irradiated cells was assessed via cell cycle progression, mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) perturbation, and apoptosis regulation using flow cytometry. Results of the study demonstrated significant radioprotective efficacy (>80%) of NAT in irradiated cells as estimated by sulforhodamine B (SRB), MTT, and clonogenic assay. Significant (p < 0.001) reduction in ROS, xanthine oxidase, and mitochondrial superoxide levels along with increment in catalase, glutathione-s-transferase, glutathione, and ATPase activities in NAT pretreated plus irradiated cells was observed as compared to the gamma-irradiated cells. Further, significant (p < 0.001) stabilization of MMP and reduction in apoptosis was also observed in NAT pretreated plus irradiated cells as compared to irradiated cells that not pretreated with NAT. The current study demonstrates that NAT pretreatment to irradiated cells protects against gamma radiation-induced cell death by reducing oxidative stress, stabilizing MMP, and inhibiting apoptosis. These observations conclusively highlight the potential of developing NAT as a prospective radioprotective agent upon further validation using in-depth preclinical assessment in cellular and animal models.

An active metabolite of the anti-COVID-19 drug molnupiravir impairs mouse preimplantation embryos at clinically relevant concentrations

Molnupiravir is a nucleoside analog antiviral that is authorized for use in the treatment of COVID-19. For its therapeutic action, molnupiravir is converted after ingestion to the active metabolite N4-hydroxycytidine, which is incorporated into the viral genome to cause lethal mutagenesis. Molnupiravir is not recommended for use during pregnancy, because preclinical animal studies suggest that it is hazardous to developing embryos. However, the mechanisms underlying the embryotoxicity of molnupiravir are currently unknown. To gain mechanistic insights into its embryotoxic action, the effects of molnupiravir and N4-hydroxycytidine were examined on the in vitro development of mouse preimplantation embryos. Molnupiravir did not prevent blastocyst formation even at concentrations that were much higher than the therapeutic plasma levels. By contrast, N4-hyroxycytidine exhibited potent toxicity, as it interfered with blastocyst formation and caused extensive cell death at concentrations below the therapeutic plasma levels. The adverse effects of N4-hydroxycytidine were dependent on the timing of exposure, such that treatment after the 8-cell stage, but not before it, caused embryotoxicity. Transcriptomic analysis of N4-hydroxycytidine-exposed embryos, together with the examination of eIF-2a protein phosphorylation level, suggested that N4-hydroxycytidine induced the integrated stress response. The adverse effects of N4-hydroxycytidine were significantly alleviated by the co-treatment with S-(4-nitrobenzyl)-6-thioinosine, suggesting that the embryotoxic potential of N4-hydroxycytidine requires the activity of nucleoside transporters. These findings show that the active metabolite of molnupiravir impairs preimplantation development at clinically relevant concentrations, providing mechanistic foundation for further studies on the embryotoxic potential of molnupiravir and other related nucleoside antivirals.

New perspective on mechanism in muscle toxicity of ochratoxin A: Model of juvenile grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella)

Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a common fungal toxin that pollutes raw materials of aquatic feeds (such as corn, soybean meal, and wheat). This study explored the effects of OTA through diet on muscle toxicity in juvenile grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella). The following results were obtained for the muscle. (1) With an increase in dietary OTA, the residue of OTA in muscle increased, muscle fiber diameter and density decreased, and even muscle fiber breakage. (2) OTA caused oxidative stress by downregulating GPx1 (a, b) and Trx via inhibited the PGC1-α/Nrf2 signaling pathway. (3) OTA exacerbated endoplasmic reticulum stress in the muscle by causing endoplasmic reticulum expansion (results of transmission electron microscopy) and upregulating the expression of GRP78, eIF2α, ATF6, PERK, and CHOP. (4) OTA reduced muscle fiber diameter by inhibiting protein synthesis (AKT, TOR, and S6K1) and promoting the mRNA expression of protein degradation-related genes (MURF1, MAFBX, and FoxO3a), as well as by reducing AKT and promoting the immunofluorescence expression of FoxO3. (5) OTA inhibits collagen deposition by downregulating TGF-β1, TGF-βR1, Smad2, Smad3, Smad4, CTGF, TIMP, PHD, and LOX mRNA expressions as well as the CTGF immunofluorescence expression. Moreover, based on the GSH and collagen content contents, the upper safe dose for OTA-induced toxicity was 963.6 and 1129.6 μg/kg diet, respectively. Using the example of OTA, our research has provided new insights that raise concerns about the quality of aquatic products by exploring muscle toxicity caused by mycotoxins.

N-acetyl-L-tryptophan (NAT) provides protection to intestinal epithelial cells (IEC-6) against radiation-induced apoptosis via modulation of oxidative stress and mitochondrial membrane integrity

BACKGROUND

Ionizing radiation generates oxidative stress in biological systems via inducing free radicals. Gastro-intestinal system has been known for its high radiosensitivity. Therefore, to develop an effective radiation countermeasure for gastrointestinal system, N-acetyl L-tryptophan was evaluated for its radioprotective efficacy using intestinal epithelial cells-6 (IEC-6) cells as the experimental model.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Cellular metabolic and lysosomal activity of L-NAT and L-NAT treated irradiated IEC-6 cells were assessed by MTT and NRU staining, respectively. ROS and mitochondrial superoxide levels along with mitochondrial disruption were detected using specific fluorescent probes.  Endogenous antioxidants (CAT, SOD, GST, GPx) activities were determined using calorimetric assay.  Apoptosis and DNA damage were assessed using flow cytometery and Comet assay, respectively. Results of the study were demonstrated that L-NAT pre-treatment (- 1 h) to irradiated IEC-6 cells significantly contribute to ensuring 84.36% to 87.68% (p < 0.0001) survival at 0.1 μg/mL concentration against LD50 radiation dose (LD50; 20 Gy). Similar level of radioprotection was observed with a clonogenic assay against γ radiation (LD50; 5 Gy). L-NAT was found to provide radioprotection by neutralizing radiation-induced oxidative stress, enhancing antioxidant enzymes (CAT, SOD, GST, and GPx), and protecting DNA from radiation-induced damage. Further, significant restoration of mitochondrial membrane integrity along with apoptosis inhibition was observed with irradiated IEC-6 cells upon L-NAT pretreatment.

Amelioration of Radiation-Induced Cell Death in Neuro2a Cells by Neutralizing Oxidative Stress and Reducing Mitochondrial Dysfunction Using N-Acetyl-L-Tryptophan

The deleterious effects of ionizing radiation on the central nervous system (CNS) are poorly understood. Radiation exposure during an accidental nuclear explosion, nuclear war, or radiotherapy causes severe brain damage. As a result, the current work is carried out to assess the radioprotective potential of N-acetyl-L-tryptophan (L-NAT) in neuronal cells. Radiation-induced cell death and its amelioration by L-NAT pretreatment were investigated using MTT, SRB, CFU, and comet assays. Flow cytometric and microscopic fluorescence assays were used to investigate radiation-induced oxidative stress, alteration in mitochondrial redox, Ca2+ homeostasis, depolarization of mitochondrial membrane potential, and its prevention with L-NAT pretreatment. Western blot analysis of Caspase-3, γ-H2aX, p53, ERK-1/2, and p-ERK-1/2 expression was carried out to identify the effects of L-NAT pretreatment on radiation-induced apoptosis and its regulatory proteins expression. The study demonstrated (MTT, SRB, and CFU assay) significant (~80%; p <0.001%) radioprotection in irradiated (LD50 IR dose) Neuro2a cells that were pretreated with L-NAT. In comparison to irradiated cells, L-NAT pretreatment resulted in significant (p <0.001%) DNA protection. A subsequent study revealed that L-NAT pretreatment of irradiated Neuro2a cells establishes oxidative stress by increasing antioxidant enzymes and mitochondrial redox homeostasis by inhibiting Ca2+ migration from the cytoplasm to the mitochondrial matrix and thus protects the mitochondrial membrane hyperpolarization. Caspase-3 and γ-H2aX protein expression decreased, while p-ERK1/2 and p53 expression increased in L-NAT pretreated irradiated cells compared to irradiated cells. Hence, L-NAT could be a potential radioprotective that may inhibit oxidative stress and DNA damage and maintain mitochondrial health and Ca2+ levels by activating p-ERK1/2 and p53 expression in Neuronal cells.

Protective and detoxifying effects conferred by selenium against mycotoxins and livestock viruses: A review

Animal feed can easily be infected with molds during production and storage processes, and this can lead to the production of secondary metabolites, such as mycotoxins, which eventually threaten human and animal health. Furthermore, livestock production is also not free from viral infections. Under these conditions, the essential trace element, selenium (Se), can confer various biological benefits to humans and animals, especially due to its anticancer, antiviral, and antioxidant properties, as well as its ability to regulate immune responses. This article reviews the latest literature on the antagonistic effects of Se on mycotoxin toxicity and viral infections in animals. We outlined the systemic toxicity of mycotoxins and the primary mechanisms of mycotoxin-induced toxicity in this analysis. In addition, we pay close attention to how mycotoxins and viral infections in livestock interact. The use of Se supplementation against mycotoxin-induced toxicity and cattle viral infection was the topic of our final discussion. The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, which is currently causing a health catastrophe, has altered our perspective on health concerns to one that is more holistic and increasingly embraces the One Health Concept, which acknowledges the interdependence of humans, animals, and the environment. In light of this, we have made an effort to present a thorough and wide-ranging background on the protective functions of selenium in successfully reducing mycotoxin toxicity and livestock viral infection. It concluded that mycotoxins could be systemically harmful and pose a severe risk to human and animal health. On the contrary, animal mycotoxins and viral illnesses have a close connection. Last but not least, these findings show that the interaction between Se status and host response to mycotoxins and cattle virus infection is crucial.

Ochratoxin A as alarming health in livestock and human: A review on molecular interactions, mechanism of toxicity, detection, detoxification, and dietary prophylaxis

Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a toxic metabolite produced by Aspergillus and Penicillium fungi commonly found in raw plant sources and other feeds. This review comprises an extensive evaluation of the origin and proprieties of OTA, toxicokinetics, biotransformation, and toxicodynamics of ochratoxins. In in vitro and in vivo studies, the compatibility of OTA with oxidative stress is observed through the production of free radicals, resulting in genotoxicity and carcinogenicity. The OTA leads to nephrotoxicity as the chief target organ is the kidney. Other OTA excretion and absorption rates are observed, and the routes of elimination include faeces, urine, and breast milk. The alternations in the Phe moiety of OTA are the precursor for the amino acid alternation, bringing about Phe-hydroxylase and Phe-tRNA synthase, resulting in the complete dysfunction of cellular metabolism. Biodetoxification using specific microorganisms decreased the DNA damage, lipid peroxidation, and cytotoxicity. This review addressed the ability of antioxidants and the dietary components as prophylactic measures to encounter toxicity and demonstrated their capability to counteract the chronic exposure through supplementation as feed additives.

In vitro and in vivo evaluation of AFB1 and OTA-toxicity through immunofluorescence and flow cytometry techniques: A systematic review

Due to the globalization, mycotoxins have been considered a major risk to human health being the main contaminants of foodstuffs. Among them, AFB1 and OTA are the most toxic and studied. Therefore, the goal of this review is to deepen the knowledge about the toxicological effects that AFB1 and OTA can induce on human health by using flow cytometry and immunofluorescence techniques in vitro and in vivo models. The examination of the selected reports shows that the majority of them are focused on immunotoxicity while the rest are concerned about nephrotoxicity, hepatotoxicity, gastrointestinal toxicity, neurotoxicity, embryotoxicity, reproductive system, breast, esophageal and lung toxicity. In relation to immunofluorescence analysis, biological processes related to AFB1- and OTA-toxicity were evaluated such as inflammation, neuronal differentiation, DNA damage, oxidative stress and cell death. In flow cytometry analysis, a wide range of assays have been performed across the reviewed studies being apoptosis assay, cell cycle analysis and intracellular ROS measurement the most employed. Although, the toxic effects of AFB1 and OTA have been reported, further research is needed to clarify AFB1 and OTA-mechanism of action on human health.

The roles of DNA methylation and hydroxymethylation at short interspersed nuclear elements in the hypothalamic arcuate nucleus during puberty

Puberty is the gateway to adult reproductive competence, encompassing a suite of complex, integrative, and coordinated changes in neuroendocrine functions. However, the regulatory mechanisms of transcriptional reprogramming in the arcuate nucleus (ARC) during onset of puberty are still not fully understood. To understand the role of epigenetics in regulating gene expression, mouse hypothalamic ARCs were isolated at 4 and 8 weeks, and the transcriptome, DNA hydroxymethylation, DNA methylation, and chromatin accessibility were assessed via RNA sequencing (RNA-seq), reduced representation bisulfite sequencing (RRBS-seq), reduced representation hydroxymethylation profiling (RRHP)-seq, and assay for transposase-accessible chromatin (ATAC-seq), respectively. The overall DNA hydroxymethylation and DNA methylation changes in retroelements (REs) were associated with gene expression modeling for puberty in the ARC. We focused on analyzing DNA hydroxymethylation and DNA methylation at two short interspersed nuclear elements (SINEs) located on the promoter of the 5-hydroxytryptamine receptor 6 (Htr6) gene and the enhancer of the KISS-1 metastasis suppressor (Kiss1) gene and investigated their regulatory roles in gene expression. Our data uncovered a novel epigenetic mechanism by which SINEs regulate gene expression during puberty.

Ochratoxin A-Induced Nephrotoxicity: Up-to-Date Evidence

Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a mycotoxin widely found in various foods and feeds that have a deleterious effect on humans and animals. It has been shown that OTA causes multiorgan toxicity, and the kidney is the main target of OTA among them. This present article aims to review recent and latest intracellular molecular interactions and signaling pathways of OTA-induced nephrotoxicity. Pyroptosis, lipotoxicity, organic anionic membrane transporter, autophagy, the ubiquitin-proteasome system, and histone acetyltransferase have been involved in the renal toxicity caused by OTA. Meanwhile, the literature reviewed the alternative or method against OTA toxicity by reducing ROS production, oxidative stress, activating the Nrf2 pathway, through using nanoparticles, a natural flavonoid, and metal supplement. The present review discloses the molecular mechanism of OTA-induced nephrotoxicity, providing opinions and strategies against OTA toxicity.

The epigenetic role of HTR1A antagonist in facilitaing GnRH expression for pubertal initiation control

Serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine [5-HT]), a metabolite of tryptophan, acts on the components of the hypothalamus-hypophysis-gonad axis and induces puberty delay in mammals via 5-HT receptor 1A (HTR1A). However, the roles of HTR1A in the hypothalamus in pubertal regulation of gene expression are not fully understood. In the current study, the upregulated gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) expression in GT1-7 GnRH neuronal cells induced by the HTR1A antagonist WAY-100635 maleate was observed in vitro. Furthermore, RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) showed decreased expression of chromobox 4 (CBX4), a member of the polycomb-repressive complex 1 (PRC1), and the loss of RING2 and YY1 interaction with CBX4, suggesting the degradation of the PRC1 in GT1-7 cells treated with maleate. Chromatin immunoprecipitation sequencing (ChIP-seq) showed that the genome-wide occupancy of CBX4 and histone H2A lysine-119 ubiquitination (H2AK119ub) was compromised, especially on the promoter of GnRH. Finally, we determined that inactivation of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/Akt and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK)/extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) contributed to CBX4 downregulation. Taken together, we concluded that HTR1A antagonists could enhance GnRH transcription via PRC1 degradation and H2AK119ub loss driven by reduced CBX4 expression through PI3K/Akt and MAPK/ERK pathway suppression in GT1-7 cells and provided a potential epigenetic mechanism of action of HTR1A on GnRH gene expression for mammalian puberty onset.

N-acetyl-L-tryptophan attenuates hepatic ischemia-reperfusion injury via regulating TLR4/NLRP3 signaling pathway in rats

The aim of this study was to investigate the changes of TLR4/NLRP3 signal during hepatic ischemia-reperfusion injury (HIRI) and to verify whether N-acetyl-L-tryptophan (L-NAT) protected hepatocytes by regulating the activation of TLR4/NLRP3 signal. We have established the rat HIRI model and H₂O₂-induced cell damage model to simulate ischemia-reperfusion injury and detect the corresponding indicators. Compared with the sham group, Suzuki score and the level of serum ALT increased after HIRI, accompanied by an increased expression of NLRP3, ASC, Caspase-1, IL-1β, TLR4, and NF-κB. While L-NAT pretreatment reversed the above-mentioned changes. Compared with the control group, cells in the H₂O₂ treated group became smaller in cell volume and round in shape with unclear boundaries. Similar to the phenotypes in vivo, H₂O₂ treatment also induced significant increase in expression of pyroptosis-related proteins (NLRP3, ASC, Caspase-1 and IL-1β) and inflammatory factors (TLR4 and NF-κB). While L-NAT pretreatment attenuated injuries caused by H₂O₂. In conclusion, the present findings demonstrate that L-NAT alleviates HIRI by regulating activation of NLRP3 inflammasome, which may be related to the TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway.

Engineering of gemcitabine coated nano-graphene oxide sheets for efficient near-infrared radiation mediated in vivo lung cancer photothermal therapy

Gemcitabine (GEM) and its derivatives of deoxycytosine is a promising anticancer candidate which is effective for the treatment of various cancers including lung cancer via cascade targetting Erk/Mek/Raf/Ras pathway and blocking the proliferation of the tumor cells. In this present work, we have described reduced graphene oxide (rGO) in the presence of anticancer utilizing ascorbic acid as reducing agents for lung cancer treatment. GEM reduced graphene oxide (termed as GEM-rGO) has resulted in a smooth and transparent morphological surface, which was confirmed by various spectroscopical investigations. The anticancer drug-loaded rGO has displayed remarkable cytotoxic activities against a panel of lung cancer cell lines when compared to the untreated lung cancer cells. Further, we examined the morphological observation of the cancer cell death was monitored through the fluorescence microscopic examinations. In addition, the cell deaths of the lung cancer cells were observed by the flow cytometry analyses. In addition, the non-toxic nature of potent GEM-rGO and GEM-rGO + NIR was confirmed by in vivo systemic toxicity analysis. Besides, the higher safety feature of the GEM-rGO and GEM-rGO + NIR was evidenced by histological analyses of the mice organs. The subcutaneous injection of GEM-rGO and GEM-rGO + NIR into mice bearing A549 xenografts more effectively inhibited the tumor than the free GEM. Based on the outcomes, we can summarise that the GEM reduced graphene oxide (GEM-rGO) can be used as a promising drug candidate for the treatment of lung cancer in the future.

Tryptophan Attenuates the Effects of OTA on Intestinal Morphology and Local IgA/IgY Production in Broiler Chicks

Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a mycotoxin produced by species of Penicillium and Aspergillus that can contaminate products of plant origin that are used as animal feed. Through oral exposure, this mycotoxin primarily affects the chicken gastrointestinal system. The present study evaluated the intestinal toxic effects of OTA and the introduction of L-tryptophan to alleviate these effects in chickens. One-day-old chicks were exposed to a single OTA dose (1.4 mg/kg body weight—b.w.) and treated with or without four daily doses of L-tryptophan (100 mg/kg b.w.). Duodenal villus height/crypt depth, fecal immunoglobulin A/immunoglobulin Y (IgA/IgY) levels, and duodenal positive immunoglobulin A cells (IgA⁺) were evaluated by histology, ELISA, and immunohistochemistry, respectively, on the 14th day. There were significant changes in the duodenal villus height, crypt depth, and levels of fecal IgA/IgY and duodenal IgA⁺ cells (p < 0.05) in groups exposed to OTA. On the other hand, groups exposed to OTA and treated with L-tryptophan showed similar levels of villus height, IgA/IgY levels, and duodenal IgA⁺ cells to those of the control group (p > 0.05). In conclusion, exposure to a single dose of OTA orally induces changes in intestinal morphology, levels of IgA/IgY antibodies, and IgA⁺ cells. Thus, treatment with L-tryptophan may be a valid alternative means to reduce the harmful effects of OTA on the intestinal mucosa, which requires further study.

Molecular Aspects of Mycotoxins-A Serious Problem for Human Health

Mycotoxins are toxic fungal secondary metabolities formed by a variety of fungi (moulds) species. Hundreds of potentially toxic mycotoxins have been already identified and are considered a serious problem in agriculture, animal husbandry, and public health. A large number of food-related products and beverages are yearly contaminated by mycotoxins, resulting in economic welfare losses. Mycotoxin indoor environment contamination is a global problem especially in less technologically developed countries. There is an ongoing effort in prevention of mould growth in the field and decontamination of contaminated food and feed in order to protect human and animal health. It should be emphasized that the mycotoxins production by fungi (moulds) species is unavoidable and that they are more toxic than pesticides. Human and animals are exposed to mycotoxin via food, inhalation, or contact which can result in many building-related illnesses including kidney and neurological diseases and cancer. In this review, we described in detail the molecular aspects of main representatives of mycotoxins, which are serious problems for global health, such as aflatoxins, ochratoxin A, T-2 toxin, deoxynivalenol, patulin, and zearalenone.