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Fuwa H. Synthesis-Driven Stereochemical Assignment of Marine Polycyclic Ether Natural Products. Mar Drugs 2021; 19:257. [PMID: 33947080 PMCID: PMC8145320 DOI: 10.3390/md19050257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2021] [Revised: 04/26/2021] [Accepted: 04/27/2021] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Marine polycyclic ether natural products have gained significant interest from the chemical community due to their impressively huge molecular architecture and diverse biological functions. The structure assignment of this class of extraordinarily complex natural products has mainly relied on NMR spectroscopic analysis. However, NMR spectroscopic analysis has its own limitations, including configurational assignment of stereogenic centers within conformationally flexible systems. Chemical shift deviation analysis of synthetic model compounds is a reliable means to assign the relative configuration of "difficult" stereogenic centers. The complete configurational assignment must be ultimately established through total synthesis. The aim of this review is to summarize the indispensable role of organic synthesis in stereochemical assignment of marine polycyclic ethers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haruhiko Fuwa
- Department of Applied Chemistry, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Chuo University, 1-13-27 Kasuga, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 112-8551, Japan
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L’Herondelle K, Talagas M, Mignen O, Misery L, Le Garrec R. Neurological Disturbances of Ciguatera Poisoning: Clinical Features and Pathophysiological Basis. Cells 2020; 9:E2291. [PMID: 33066435 PMCID: PMC7602189 DOI: 10.3390/cells9102291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2020] [Revised: 10/07/2020] [Accepted: 10/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Ciguatera fish poisoning (CFP), the most prevalent seafood poisoning worldwide, is caused by the consumption of tropical and subtropical fish contaminated with potent neurotoxins called ciguatoxins (CTXs). Ciguatera is a complex clinical syndrome in which peripheral neurological signs predominate in the acute phase of the intoxication but also persist or reoccur long afterward. Their recognition is of particular importance in establishing the diagnosis, which is clinically-based and can be a challenge for physicians unfamiliar with CFP. To date, no specific treatment exists. Physiopathologically, the primary targets of CTXs are well identified, as are the secondary events that may contribute to CFP symptomatology. This review describes the clinical features, focusing on the sensory disturbances, and then reports on the neuronal targets and effects of CTXs, as well as the neurophysiological and histological studies that have contributed to existing knowledge of CFP neuropathophysiology at the molecular, neurocellular and nerve levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Killian L’Herondelle
- University of Brest, School of Medicine, Laboratoire Interactions Epithéliums-Neurones (Univ Brest, LIEN), F-29200 Brest, France; (K.L.); (M.T.); (L.M.)
| | - Matthieu Talagas
- University of Brest, School of Medicine, Laboratoire Interactions Epithéliums-Neurones (Univ Brest, LIEN), F-29200 Brest, France; (K.L.); (M.T.); (L.M.)
- Department of Dermatology, University Hospital of Brest, F-29200 Brest, France
| | - Olivier Mignen
- University of Brest, School of Medicine, INSERM U1227, Lymphocytes B et auto-immunité, F-29200 Brest, France;
| | - Laurent Misery
- University of Brest, School of Medicine, Laboratoire Interactions Epithéliums-Neurones (Univ Brest, LIEN), F-29200 Brest, France; (K.L.); (M.T.); (L.M.)
- Department of Dermatology, University Hospital of Brest, F-29200 Brest, France
| | - Raphaele Le Garrec
- University of Brest, School of Medicine, Laboratoire Interactions Epithéliums-Neurones (Univ Brest, LIEN), F-29200 Brest, France; (K.L.); (M.T.); (L.M.)
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Neves RAF, Pardal MA, Nascimento SM, Silva A, Oliveira PJ, Rodrigues ET. High sensitivity of rat cardiomyoblast H9c2(2-1) cells to Gambierdiscus toxic compounds. AQUATIC TOXICOLOGY (AMSTERDAM, NETHERLANDS) 2020; 223:105475. [PMID: 32325308 DOI: 10.1016/j.aquatox.2020.105475] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2019] [Revised: 03/18/2020] [Accepted: 03/18/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Ciguatera fish poisoning is a frequently reported non-bacterial food-borne illness related to the consumption of seafood contaminated with ciguatoxins, and possibly maitotoxins. These toxins are synthesized by marine dinoflagellate species of Gambierdiscus and Fukuyoa genera, and their abundance is a matter of great concern due to their adverse effects to aquatic life and human health. The present study aims to assess the sensitivity of rat cardiomyoblast H9c2(2-1) cells to Gambierdiscus toxic compounds using concentration- and time-dependent sulforhodamine B (SRB) colorimetric assays. Low concentrations of Gambierdiscus extracts (corresponding to 1.3-2.3 cells mL-1) induced a concentration-dependent response. Specificity in time-dependent response of H9c2(2-1) cells was demonstrated for G. excentricus after a 180 min exposure compared to both G. cf. belizeanus and G. silvae species, with EC50s obtained after 720 and 360 min, respectively. The sensitivity of H9c2(2-1) cells to dinoflagellate toxic compounds was also tested with other genera from benthic (Coolia malayensis, Ostreopsis cf. ovata, Prorocentrum hoffmannianum and P. lima) and planktonic (Amphidinium carterae and Lingulodinium polyedrum) habitats. Amphidinium, Coolia and Lingulodinium data did not present any concentration-response relationships, and EC50 values could only be obtained after 720 and 1440 min of exposure to both Prorocentrum species and O. cf. ovata, respectively. This study demonstrated that the H9c2(2-1) SRB assay represents a promising and sensitive tool for the detection of Gambierdiscus toxic compounds present in water samples, particularly of G. excentricus at very low cell abundances.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raquel A F Neves
- Department of Ecology and Marine Resources, Federal University of the State of Rio de Janeiro (UNIRIO), Av Pasteur 458-307, 22290-240, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; CFE-Centre for Functional Ecology, Department of Life Sciences, University of Coimbra, Calçada Martim de Freitas, 3000-456 Coimbra, Portugal.
| | - Miguel A Pardal
- CFE-Centre for Functional Ecology, Department of Life Sciences, University of Coimbra, Calçada Martim de Freitas, 3000-456 Coimbra, Portugal.
| | - Silvia M Nascimento
- Department of Ecology and Marine Resources, Federal University of the State of Rio de Janeiro (UNIRIO), Av Pasteur 458-307, 22290-240, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
| | - Alexandra Silva
- Phytoplankton Laboratory, Division of Oceanography and Environment, Portuguese Institute for the Sea and Atmosphere (IPMA), Rua Alfredo Magalhães Ramalho 6, 1495-006, Lisboa, Portugal.
| | - Paulo J Oliveira
- CNC-Centre for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra Biotech Building, Lot 8A, Biocant Park, 3060-197, Cantanhede, Portugal.
| | - Elsa T Rodrigues
- CFE-Centre for Functional Ecology, Department of Life Sciences, University of Coimbra, Calçada Martim de Freitas, 3000-456 Coimbra, Portugal.
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Natural Antispasmodics: Source, Stereochemical Configuration, and Biological Activity. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2018; 2018:3819714. [PMID: 30402474 PMCID: PMC6196993 DOI: 10.1155/2018/3819714] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2018] [Accepted: 08/28/2018] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Natural products with antispasmodic activity have been used in traditional medicine to alleviate different illnesses since the remote past. We searched the literature and compiled the antispasmodic activity of 248 natural compounds isolated from terrestrial plants. In this review, we summarized all the natural products reported with antispasmodic activity until the end of 2017. We also provided chemical information about their extraction as well as the model used to test their activities. Results showed that members of the Lamiaceae and Asteraceae families had the highest number of isolated compounds with antispasmodic activity. Moreover, monoterpenoids, flavonoids, triterpenes, and alkaloids were the chemical groups with the highest number of antispasmodic compounds. Lastly, a structural comparison of natural versus synthetic compounds was discussed.
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Shmukler YB, Nikishin DA. Ladder-Shaped Ion Channel Ligands: Current State of Knowledge. Mar Drugs 2017; 15:E232. [PMID: 28726749 PMCID: PMC5532674 DOI: 10.3390/md15070232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2017] [Revised: 07/07/2017] [Accepted: 07/14/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Ciguatoxins (CTX) and brevetoxins (BTX) are polycyclic ethereal compounds biosynthesized by the worldwide distributed planktonic and epibenthic dinoflagellates of Gambierdiscus and Karenia genera, correspondingly. Ciguatera, evoked by CTXs, is a type of ichthyosarcotoxism, which involves a variety of gastrointestinal and neurological symptoms, while BTXs cause so-called neurotoxic shellfish poisoning. Both types of toxins are reviewed together because of similar mechanisms of their action. These are the only molecules known to activate voltage-sensitive Na⁺-channels in mammals through a specific interaction with site 5 of its α-subunit and may compete for it, which results in an increase in neuronal excitability, neurotransmitter release and impairment of synaptic vesicle recycling. Most marine ciguatoxins potentiate Nav channels, but a considerable number of them, such as gambierol and maitotoxin, have been shown to affect another ion channel. Although the extrinsic function of these toxins is probably associated with the function of a feeding deterrent, it was suggested that their intrinsic function is coupled with the regulation of photosynthesis via light-harvesting complex II and thioredoxin. Antagonistic effects of BTXs and brevenal may provide evidence of their participation as positive and negative regulators of this mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuri B Shmukler
- Group of Embryophysiology, N.K. Koltzov Institute of Developmental Biology, Russian Academy of Sciences, 26, Vavilov st, 119334 Moscow, Russia.
| | - Denis A Nikishin
- Group of Embryophysiology, N.K. Koltzov Institute of Developmental Biology, Russian Academy of Sciences, 26, Vavilov st, 119334 Moscow, Russia.
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Abstract
The five most commonly recognized Harmful Algal Bloom related illnesses include Ciguatera poisoning, Paralytic Shellfish poisoning, Neurotoxin Shellfish poisoning, Diarrheic Shellfish Poisoning and Amnesic Shellfish poisoning. Although they are each the product of different toxins, toxin assemblages or HAB precursors these clinical syndromes have much in common. Exposure occurs through the consumption of fish or shellfish; routine clinical tests are not available for diagnosis; there is no known antidote for exposure; and the risk of these illnesses can negatively impact local fishing and tourism industries. Thus, illness prevention is of paramount importance to minimize human and public health risks. To accomplish this, close communication and collaboration is needed among HAB scientists, public health researchers and local, state and tribal health departments at academic, community outreach, and policy levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lynn M Grattan
- Department of Neurology: Division of Neuropsychology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, 110 S. Paca St. 3 Floor, Baltimore, MD 21201,
| | - Sailor Holobaugh
- Department of Neurology: Division of Neuropsychology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, 110 S. Paca St. 3 Floor, Baltimore, MD 21201,
| | - J Glenn Morris
- Department of Medicine, College of Medicine, Emerging Pathogens Institute, University of Florida, 2055 Mowry Road; Box 100009, Gainesville, FL 32610,
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Oehler E, Bouchut J. [Ciguatera fish poisoning]. Presse Med 2014; 43:902-11. [PMID: 25001048 DOI: 10.1016/j.lpm.2014.01.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2013] [Revised: 12/22/2013] [Accepted: 01/20/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Ciguatera, an ichtyosarcotoxism linked to the consumption of usually healthy coral fish is a common poisoning in the Pacific, Caribbean and Indian Ocean where it is endemic. However, increased tourism and commercial transportation of tropical fish for consumption make it an unexceptional intoxication in countries away from its endemic area. Environmental stresses such as climate changes also contribute to the expansion of its geographical area. The non-specific clinical symptomatology is characterized by the occurrence of gastrointestinal, cardiovascular, nervous and general signs few hours after eating a ciguatoxic fish. The diagnosis is clinical and relatively easy in endemic areas but much less for physicians who are rarely confronted with, which is a source of prolonged diagnostic delays and a significant increase in spending. Treatment of ciguatera is symptomatic but new treatments, still experimental, give a real hope for the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erwan Oehler
- Centre hospitalier de Polynésie française, service de médecine interne et polyvalente, avenue du Général-de-Gaulle, 98716 Pirae, Tahiti, Polynésie française.
| | - Jérémie Bouchut
- Centre hospitalier de Polynésie française, service de médecine interne et polyvalente, avenue du Général-de-Gaulle, 98716 Pirae, Tahiti, Polynésie française
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Structure activity relationship of brevenal hydrazide derivatives. Mar Drugs 2014; 12:1839-58. [PMID: 24686558 PMCID: PMC4012454 DOI: 10.3390/md12041839] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2014] [Revised: 03/10/2014] [Accepted: 03/12/2014] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Brevenal is a ladder frame polyether produced by the dinoflagellate Karenia brevis. This organism is also responsible for the production of the neurotoxic compounds known as brevetoxins. Ingestion or inhalation of the brevetoxins leads to adverse effects such as gastrointestinal maladies and bronchoconstriction. Brevenal shows antagonistic behavior to the brevetoxins and shows beneficial attributes when administered alone. For example, in an asthmatic sheep model, brevenal has been shown to increase tracheal mucosal velocity, an attribute which has led to its development as a potential treatment for Cystic Fibrosis. The mechanism of action of brevenal is poorly understood and the exact binding site has not been elucidated. In an attempt to further understand the mechanism of action of brevenal and potentially develop a second generation drug candidate, a series of brevenal derivatives were prepared through modification of the aldehyde moiety. These derivatives include aliphatic, aromatic and heteroaromatic hydrazide derivatives. The brevenal derivatives were tested using in vitro synaptosome binding assays to determine the ability of the compounds to displace brevetoxin and brevenal from their native receptors. A sheep inhalation model was used to determine if instillation of the brevenal derivatives resulted in bronchoconstriction. Only small modifications were tolerated, with larger moieties leading to loss of affinity for the brevenal receptor and bronchoconstriction in the sheep model.
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E. McDonald F, L. Stoltz K, R. Alba AN, B. Wieliczko M, Bacsa J. Iodoetherification of Conformationally Restricted Dienyl Alcohols: Unexpected Formation of Oxocenes by 8-endo-mode Oxacyclizations. HETEROCYCLES 2014. [DOI: 10.3987/com-13-s(s)54] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Stewart I, Lewis RJ, Eaglesham GK, Graham GC, Poole S, Craig SB. Emerging tropical diseases in Australia. Part 2. Ciguatera fish poisoning. ANNALS OF TROPICAL MEDICINE AND PARASITOLOGY 2013; 104:557-71. [DOI: 10.1179/136485910x12851868779902] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
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Abstract
Chemical compounds participate in all the processes of life. Understanding the complex interactions of small molecules such as metabolites and drugs and the biological macromolecules that consume and produce them is key to gaining a wider understanding in a systemic context. Chemical property databases collect information on the biological effects and physicochemical properties of chemical entities. Accessing and using such databases is key to understanding the chemistry of toxic molecules. In this chapter, we present methods to search, understand, download, and manipulate the wealth of information available in public chemical property databases, with particular focus on the database of Chemical Entities of Biological Interest (ChEBI).
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Ebine M, Fuwa H, Sasaki M. Total synthesis of (-)-brevenal: a streamlined strategy for practical synthesis of polycyclic ethers. Chemistry 2011; 17:13754-61. [PMID: 22052481 DOI: 10.1002/chem.201101437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2011] [Revised: 08/08/2011] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
We describe a streamlined strategy for the practical synthesis of trans-fused polycyclic ethers and its application to a concise total synthesis of (-)-brevenal, a new pentacyclic polyether natural product with intriguing biological activities. The B-, D-, and E-rings were constructed by TEMPO/PhI(OAc)(2)-mediated oxidative lactonization of the corresponding 1,6-diols, with minimal need for manipulation of oxygen functionalities. The B- and E-ring lactones were appropriately functionalized by Suzuki-Miyaura coupling of lactone-derived enol phosphates and subsequent stereoselective hydroboration. The A-ring was formed by our mixed thioacetalization methodology. The AB- and DE-ring fragments were assembled through Suzuki-Miyaura coupling, and the C-ring was forged in the same manner as that for the A-ring. More than two grams of the pentacyclic polyether core of (-)-brevenal have been synthesized by the synthetic route developed in this study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Makoto Ebine
- Graduate School of Life Sciences, Tohoku University, 2-1-1 Katahira, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8577, Japan
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Ryan JC, Morey JS, Bottein MYD, Ramsdell JS, Van Dolah FM. Gene expression profiling in brain of mice exposed to the marine neurotoxin ciguatoxin reveals an acute anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective response. BMC Neurosci 2010; 11:107. [PMID: 20796285 PMCID: PMC2939656 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2202-11-107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2010] [Accepted: 08/26/2010] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Ciguatoxins (CTXs) are polyether marine neurotoxins and potent activators of voltage-gated sodium channels. This toxin is carried by multiple reef-fish species and human consumption of ciguatoxins can result in an explosive gastrointestinal/neurologic illness. This study characterizes the global transcriptional response in mouse brain to a symptomatic dose of the highly toxic Pacific ciguatoxin P-CTX-1 and additionally compares this data to transcriptional profiles from liver and whole blood examined previously. Adult male C57/BL6 mice were injected with 0.26 ng/g P-CTX-1 while controls received only vehicle. Animals were sacrificed at 1, 4 and 24 hrs and transcriptional profiling was performed on brain RNA with Agilent whole genome microarrays. RT-PCR was used to independently validate gene expression and the web tool DAVID was used to analyze gene ontology (GO) and molecular pathway enrichment of the gene expression data. RESULTS A pronounced 4°C hypothermic response was recorded in these mice, reaching a minimum at 1 hr and lasting for 8 hrs post toxin exposure. Ratio expression data were filtered by intensity, fold change and p-value, with the resulting data used for time course analysis, K-means clustering, ontology classification and KEGG pathway enrichment. Top GO hits for this gene set included acute phase response and mono-oxygenase activity. Molecular pathway analysis showed enrichment for complement/coagulation cascades and metabolism of xenobiotics. Many immediate early genes such as Fos, Jun and Early Growth Response isoforms were down-regulated although others associated with stress such as glucocorticoid responsive genes were up-regulated. Real time PCR confirmation was performed on 22 differentially expressed genes with a correlation of 0.9 (Spearman's Rho, p < 0.0001) with microarray results. CONCLUSIONS Many of the genes differentially expressed in this study, in parallel with the hypothermia, figure prominently in protection against neuroinflammation. Pathologic activity of the complement/coagulation cascade has been shown in patients suffering from a chronic form of ciguatera poisoning and is of particular interest in this model. Anti-inflammatory processes were at work not only in the brain but were also seen in whole blood and liver of these animals, creating a systemic anti-inflammatory environment to protect against the initial cellular damage caused by the toxin.
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Affiliation(s)
- James C Ryan
- Marine Biotoxins Program, NOAA Center for Coastal Environmental Health and Biomolecular Research, Charleston, SC, USA
| | - Jeanine S Morey
- Marine Biotoxins Program, NOAA Center for Coastal Environmental Health and Biomolecular Research, Charleston, SC, USA
| | | | - John S Ramsdell
- Marine Biotoxins Program, NOAA Center for Coastal Environmental Health and Biomolecular Research, Charleston, SC, USA
| | - Frances M Van Dolah
- Marine Biotoxins Program, NOAA Center for Coastal Environmental Health and Biomolecular Research, Charleston, SC, USA
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Caillaud A, de la Iglesia P, Darius HT, Pauillac S, Aligizaki K, Fraga S, Chinain M, Diogène J. Update on methodologies available for ciguatoxin determination: perspectives to confront the onset of ciguatera fish poisoning in Europe. Mar Drugs 2010; 8:1838-907. [PMID: 20631873 PMCID: PMC2901828 DOI: 10.3390/md8061838] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2010] [Revised: 05/18/2010] [Accepted: 06/10/2010] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Ciguatera fish poisoning (CFP) occurs mainly when humans ingest finfish contaminated with ciguatoxins (CTXs). The complexity and variability of such toxins have made it difficult to develop reliable methods to routinely monitor CFP with specificity and sensitivity. This review aims to describe the methodologies available for CTX detection, including those based on the toxicological, biochemical, chemical, and pharmaceutical properties of CTXs. Selecting any of these methodological approaches for routine monitoring of ciguatera may be dependent upon the applicability of the method. However, identifying a reference validation method for CTXs is a critical and urgent issue, and is dependent upon the availability of certified CTX standards and the coordinated action of laboratories. Reports of CFP cases in European hospitals have been described in several countries, and are mostly due to travel to CFP endemic areas. Additionally, the recent detection of the CTX-producing tropical genus Gambierdiscus in the eastern Atlantic Ocean of the northern hemisphere and in the Mediterranean Sea, as well as the confirmation of CFP in the Canary Islands and possibly in Madeira, constitute other reasons to study the onset of CFP in Europe [1]. The question of the possible contribution of climate change to the distribution of toxin-producing microalgae and ciguateric fish is raised. The impact of ciguatera onset on European Union (EU) policies will be discussed with respect to EU regulations on marine toxins in seafood. Critical analysis and availability of methodologies for CTX determination is required for a rapid response to suspected CFP cases and to conduct sound CFP risk analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amandine Caillaud
- IRTA, Ctra. Poble Nou, Km 5,5. 43540 Sant Carles de la Ràpita, Spain; E-Mails: (A.C.); (P.I.)
| | - Pablo de la Iglesia
- IRTA, Ctra. Poble Nou, Km 5,5. 43540 Sant Carles de la Ràpita, Spain; E-Mails: (A.C.); (P.I.)
| | - H. Taiana Darius
- Laboratoire des micro-algues toxiques, Institut Louis Malardé, BP30, 98713 Papeete Tahiti, French Polynesia; E-Mails: (H.T.D.); (M.C.)
| | - Serge Pauillac
- Institut Pasteur, 25-28 rue du docteur Roux, 75 015 Paris, France; E-Mail: (S.P.)
| | - Katerina Aligizaki
- Department of Botany, School of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, Aristotle University, 54 124 Thessaloniki, Greece; E-Mail: (K.A.)
| | - Santiago Fraga
- Instituto Español de Oceanografía, Subida a Radio Faro, 50, 36390 Vigo, Spain; E-Mail: (S.F.)
| | - Mireille Chinain
- Laboratoire des micro-algues toxiques, Institut Louis Malardé, BP30, 98713 Papeete Tahiti, French Polynesia; E-Mails: (H.T.D.); (M.C.)
| | - Jorge Diogène
- IRTA, Ctra. Poble Nou, Km 5,5. 43540 Sant Carles de la Ràpita, Spain; E-Mails: (A.C.); (P.I.)
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