Lactobacillus plantarum metabolites reduce deoxynivalenol toxicity on jejunal explants of piglets

A comprehensive review of biodetoxification of trichothecenes: Mechanisms, limitations and novel strategies

Trichothecenes are Fusarium mycotoxins with sesquiterpenoid structure, which are widely occurred in grains. Due to high efficiency and environmental friendliness, biological detoxification methods have been of great interest to treat this global food and feed safety concern. This review summarized the biological detoxification methods of trichothecenes from three aspects, biosorption, biotransformation and biotherapy. The detoxification efficiency, characteristics, mechanisms and limitations of different strategies were discussed in detail. Computer-aided design will bring a new research paradigm for more efficient discovery of biodetoxifier. Integrating different detoxification approaches assisted with computational tools will become a promising research direction in the future, which will help to maximize the detoxification effect, or provide precise detoxification programs for the coexistence of various toxins at different levels in actual production. In addition, technical and regulatory issues in practical application were also discussed. These findings contribute to the exploration of efficient, applicable and sustainable methods for trichothecenes detoxification, ensuring the safety of food and feed to reduce the deleterious effects of trichothecenes on humans and animals.

Modulation of Broiler Intestinal Changes Induced by Clostridium perfringens and Deoxynivalenol through Probiotic, Paraprobiotic, and Postbiotic Supplementation

Deoxynivalenol (DON) is a predisposing factor for necrotic enteritis. This study aimed to investigate the effects of a DON and Clostridium perfringens (CP) challenge on the intestinal morphology, morphometry, oxidative stress, and immune response of broilers. Additionally, we evaluated the potential of a Lactobacillus spp. mixture as an approach to mitigate the damage induced by the challenge. One-day-old broiler chickens (n = 252) were divided into seven treatment groups: Control, DON, CP, CP + DON, VL (DON + CP + viable Lactobacillus spp. mixture), HIL (DON + CP + heat-inactivated Lactobacillus spp. mixture), and LCS (DON + CP + Lactobacillus spp. mixture culture supernatant). Macroscopic evaluation of the intestines revealed that the CP + DON group exhibited the highest lesion score, while the VL and HIL groups showed the lowest scores. Microscopically, all Lactobacillus spp. treatments mitigated the morphological changes induced by the challenge. DON increased levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the jejunum, and CP increased ROS levels in the jejunum and ileum. Notably, the Lactobacillus spp. treatments did not improve the antioxidant defense against CP-induced oxidative stress. In summary, a Lactobacillus spp. mixture, whether used as a probiotic, paraprobiotic, or postbiotic, exerted a partially protective effect in mitigating most of the intestinal damage induced by DON and CP challenges.

Recalling the reported toxicity assessment of deoxynivalenol, mitigating strategies and its toxicity mechanisms: Comprehensive review

Mycotoxins frequently contaminate a variety of food items, posing significant concerns for both food safety and public health. The adverse consequences linked to poisoning from these substances encompass symptoms such as vomiting, loss of appetite, diarrhea, the potential for cancer development, impairments to the immune system, disruptions in neuroendocrine function, genetic damage, and, in severe cases, fatality. The deoxynivalenol (DON) raises significant concerns for both food safety and human health, particularly due to its potential harm to vital organs in the body. It is one of the most prevalent fungal contaminants found in edible items used by humans and animals globally. The presence of harmful mycotoxins, including DON, in food has caused widespread worry. Altered versions of DON have arisen as possible risks to the environment and well-being, as they exhibit a greater propensity to revert back to the original mycotoxins. This can result in the buildup of mycotoxins in both animals and humans, underscoring the pressing requirement for additional investigation into the adverse consequences of these modified mycotoxins. Furthermore, due to the lack of sufficient safety data, accurately evaluating the risk posed by modified mycotoxins remains challenging. Our review study delves into conjugated forms of DON, exploring its structure, toxicity, control strategies, and a novel animal model for assessing its toxicity. Various toxicities, such as acute, sub-acute, chronic, and cellular, are proposed as potential mechanisms contributing to the toxicity of conjugated forms of DON. Additionally, the study offers an overview of DON's toxicity mechanisms and discusses its widespread presence worldwide. A thorough exploration of the health risk evaluation associated with conjugated form of DON is also provided in this discussion.

Glycyrrhinic acid and probiotics alleviate deoxynivalenol-induced cytotoxicity in intestinal epithelial cells

Deoxynivalenol (DON) is one of the most prevalent mycotoxin contaminants, which posing a serious health threat to animals and humans. Previous studies have found that individually supplemented probiotic or glycyrrhinic acid (GA) could degrade DON and alleviate DON-induced cytotoxicity. The present study investigated the effect of combining GA with Saccharomyces cerevisiae (S. cerevisiae) and Enterococcus faecalis (E. faecalis) using orthogonal design on alleviating IPEC-J2 cell damage induced by DON. The results showed that the optimal counts of S. cerevisiae and E. faecalis significantly promoted cell viability. The optimal combination for increasing cell viability was 400 µg/mL GA, 1 × 10⁶ CFU/mL S. cerevisiae and 1 × 10⁶ CFU/mL E. faecalis to make GAP, which not only significantly alleviated the DON toxicity but also achieved the highest degradation rate of DON (34.7%). Moreover, DON exposure significantly increased IL-8, Caspase3 and NF-κB contents, and upregulated the mRNA expressions of Bax, Caspase 3, NF-κB and the protein expressions of Bax, TNF-α and COX-2. However, GAP addition significantly reduced aforementioned genes and proteins. Furthermore, GAP addition significantly increased the mRNA expressions of Claudin-1, Occludin, GLUT2 and ASCT2, and the protein expressions of ZO-1, Claudin-1 and PePT1. It was inferred that the combination of GA, S. cerevisiae, and E. faecalis had the synergistic effect on enhancing cell viability and DON degradation, which could protect cells from DON-induced damage by reducing DON cytotoxicity, alleviating cell apoptosis and inflammation via inhibiting NF-κB signaling pathway, improving intestinal barrier function, and regulating nutrient absorption and transport. These findings suggest that GAP may have potential as a dietary supplement for livestock or humans exposed to DON-contaminated food or feed.

Dose and route dependent effects of the mycotoxin deoxynivalenol in a 3D gut-on-a-chip model with flow

Deoxynivalenol (DON) is the most prevalent mycotoxin in human food and is ubiquitously detected in human bodyfluids. DON leads to intestinal barrier dysfunction, as observed from animal- and cell culture models with the known disadvantages. Here we present the effects of DON in a gut-on-a-chip model, as the first study incorporating the effects of intestinal flow. Using the OrganoPlate 3-lane, Caco-2 cells were seeded against an extracellular matrix (ECM) and formed leak tight tubules. DON was then applied in different concentrations (3 μM to 300 μM) via the apical or the basolateral channel. Permeability was assessed using continuous TEER and barrier integrity assays (BIA). Zonulin-1, toxicity (LDH) and proinflammatory status (IL-8) was analyzed. DON exposure led to a dose dependent decrease in para-and transcellular barrier integrity, which was more sensitive to basal than apical application (route). Timelaps/Continuous TEER measurements however revealed bidirectional effects, with even TEER-inducing effects of lower concentrations (until 10 μM). IL-8 secretion into luminal supernatants was only induced by apical DON. Attributed to the flow, the barrier-disintegrating effects of DON start at higher concentrations than in other culture models. The barrier was more sensitive to basolateral DON, even though DON had to pass the ECM; and IL-8 secretion was independent of TEER-alterations. Thus, the gut-on-a chip model might be a good alternative to further characterize the bidirectional effects of DON with reasonable throughput incorporating flow.

A review on the evolution of methods for intestinal in vitro organ culture and its application in veterinary science

Different techniques have been reported in studies of intestinal in vitro organ culture (IVOC). A robust compilation of all available methods is lacking in the literature, making it difficult to choose a method that corresponds to the study's demands. In this review, readers can assess the most available methods, allowing them to evaluate which is more suitable for their purposes and requirements. A simplified view of culturing intestinal explants is presented, highlighting the approachability of IVOC. Relevant findings from diverse veterinarian studies, where explants played a major role, as well as the technique used in each, are described to illustrate its applications. Finally, the strengths and limitations of the innovative intestinal IVOC methods are discussed. This review provides a collection of methods for intestinal explant culture and their possible applications in veterinary research. In this way, it aims to broaden access to IVOC techniques and aid decision-making regarding the best suited for a study's purposes.

An Efficient HPLC-PDA Coupled With Supel™ Tox DON SPE Approach for the Analysis of Deoxynivalenol Contamination in Cereal Grains and Feedstuffs in Jiangxi Province

Deoxynivalenol (DON) was commonly found in grains and feedstuffs, which can cause human chronic diseases. In this study, a quick and reliable method was developed for the determination of DON in grains and feedstuffs in Jiangxi Province market. The sample was extracted with acetonitrile-water (84:16, v/v), then purified by Supel™ Tox DON SPE column, and detected by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The results showed that the calibration curve of DON showed good linearity in the range of 0.01-10.0 μg/mL, and the correlation coefficient R² = 0.9999. The recovery of DON in the spiked maize sample was 94.8-98.5% by spiking with DON at 0.2 µg/g, 1.0 µg/g, and 2.0 µg/g. The RSD was between 2.5 and 3.3%. This method was used to analyze 120 samples, including 90 grains and 30 feedstuffs, collected from the Jiangxi Province market. The results showed that 81 samples of grains were positive with 90.0% positive rates, and 30 samples of feedstuff were positive with 100% positive rates. Maximum concentration of DON was 0.7 μg/g in oat and 6.9 μg/g in wheat feedstuffs, respectively. Fortunately, the positive samples of grains were safe levels in comparison with National standards for food safety limits of mycotoxins in food (1.0 μg/g), while, the feedstuff of oats was over the Maximum Guideline Level of 16.7% (the Maximum Residue Limit, MRL is 5.0 μg/g). The results of this study about current DON pollution in the grains and feedstuffs on the Jiangxi Province market have not been previously reported.

Lactobacillus plantarum and Deoxynivalenol Detoxification: A Concise Review

ABSTRACT

Mycotoxins are toxic secondary fungal metabolites that contaminate feeds, and their levels remain stable during feed processing. The economic impact of mycotoxins on animal production happens mainly due to losses related to direct effects on animal health and trade losses related to grain rejection. Deoxynivalenol (DON) is a trichothecene mycotoxin that has contaminated approximately 60% of the grains worldwide. Ingestion of DON induces many toxic effects on human and animal health. Detoxification strategies to decrease DON levels in food and feeds include physical and chemical methods; however, they are not very effective when incorporated into the industrial production process. A valuable alternative to achieve this aim is the use of lactic acid bacteria. These bacteria can control fungal growth and thus overcome DON production or can detoxify the mycotoxin through adsorption and biotransformation. Some Lactobacillus spp. strains, such as Lactobacillus plantarum, have demonstrated preventive effects against DON toxicity in poultry and swine. This beneficial effect is associated with a binding capacity of lactic acid bacteria cell wall peptidoglycan with mycotoxins. Moreover, several antifungal compounds have been isolated from L. plantarum supernatants, including lactic, acetic, caproic, phenyl lactic, 3-hydroxylated fatty, and cyclic dipeptide acids. Biotransformation of DON by L. plantarum into other products is also hypothesized, but the mechanism remains unknown. In this concise review, we highlight the use of L. plantarum as an alternative approach to reduce DON levels and toxicity. Although the action mechanism of L. plantarum is still not fully understood, these bacteria are a safe, efficient, and low-cost strategy to reduce economic losses from mycotoxin contamination cases.

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