Anti-arthritic effect and subacute toxicological evaluation of Baccharis genistelloides aqueous extract

Validation of traditional claims of anti-arthritic efficacy of trans-Himalayan snow mountain garlic (Allium ampeloprasum L.) extract using adjuvant-induced arthritis rat model: A comparative evaluation with normal garlic (Allium sativum L.) and dexamethasone

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Snow Mountain Garlic (SMG) (Allium ampeloprasum L.) is a wild trans-Himalayan member of the genus Allium, valued for its anti-inflammatory and anti-arthritic properties in the mountain folk medicinal system (Sowa-Rigpa). Despite its age-old medicinal usage by traditional therapists and the native population for various ailments including rheumatism, there is no scientific validation of its phyto-pharmaceutical merits.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The present pre-clinical study compared the in-vivo anti-arthritic effects of SMG with reported efficacy doses of normal garlic (Allium sativum L.) extract and dexamethasone in a complete Freund's adjuvant (CFA)-induced arthritis rat model.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The female Wistar rats were immunized by the subplannter injection of CFA into the right hind footpad. Aqueous extracts of SMG and normal garlic were administered orally at a dose of 250 mg/kg and 500 mg/kg for 28 days. Dexamethasone was used as positive control drug. Behavioral parameters including paw markers, arthritis index, joint stiffness, body weight change, etc. were measured. Also, the changes in histopathological indices, hematological profile, inflammatory mediators, and serum cytokines level was determined.

RESULTS

Treatment of rats with SMG extracts significantly (p < 0.001) prevented the reduction in body weight and hematological changes as well as ameliorated clinical symptoms such as arthritic index, joint stiffness, arthritis score, edema, hyperalgesia, and histopathological indices. This was associated with a significant reduction in the serum levels of RF, CRP, anti-CCP, and proinflammatory cytokines exhibiting strong anti-arthritic potential. SMG extracts could also significantly down regulate the NF-κB, COX-2, and iNOS expression in the ankle joint tissues.

CONCLUSIONS

The present study is the first attempt to validate the phyto-pharmaceutical efficacy of this folk garlic variety from the trans-Himalayan region. Overall, SMG extract showed remarkable preventive anti-inflammatory and anti-arthritic activities which were closely comparable to therapeutic effects of dexamethasone and at par or even better than normal garlic w.r.t. several study parameters.

Anti-arthritic and anti-inflammatory effects of Baccharis conferta Kunth in a kaolin/carrageenan-induced monoarthritis model

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Popularly known as "escoba" (broom) or "escobilla china" (Chinese brush), Baccharis conferta Kunth (Asteraceae), is a plant widely used in Mexican folk medicine for alleviating muscular and rheumatic pain. A recent study described that dichloromethane extract as well as fractions and isolated compounds, possess anti-inflammatory activity in TPA-induced acute edema.

AIM OF THE STUDY

Based on the popular medicinal uses of B. conferta as well as previous studies on its anti-inflammatory activity, the aim of this research was to evaluate the anti-arthritic and anti-inflammatory effects of dichloromethane extract, fractions, and compounds from B. conferta in a monoarthritis model induced with kaolin/carrageenan (K/C).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Aerial parts of B. conferta were collected, dried, and macerated with dichloromethane. The dichloromethane extract (BcD) was separated by open column chromatography to obtain the BcD2 fraction where the diterpene kingidiol (KIN) was isolated and from the BcD3 fraction the flavonoid cirsimaritin (CIR), which are the most active compounds in the TPA model. In addition, the flavonoids acacetin, pectolinaringenin and 6-methoxykaempferide were identified and isolated from the BcD2 fraction. The content of the main compounds was estimated in BcD, BcD2 and BcD3. The anti-arthritic and anti-inflammatory effects of B. conferta were investigated by evaluating ankle joint inflammation, hyperalgesia using the hot plate test, and pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokine levels in the synovial capsule as well as histological changes in ankle joint tissue in a monoarthritis model induced with K/C in Balb/c mice.

RESULTS

Oral administration of BcD2 fraction (25 mg/kg) and KIN (10 mg/kg) reduced the ankle thickness induced by K/C and decreased the levels of TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6 and IL-17, while BcD2 increased IL-10. In addition, BcD2 and KIN showed significant edema attenuation of the synovial membrane and decreased inflammatory infiltration and cartilage erosion compared to the VEH group. Finally, BcD (50 mg/kg), KIN (10 mg/kg) and CIR (5 mg/kg) decreased hyperalgesia.

CONCLUSIONS

B. conferta constitutes a therapeutic or preventive candidate for osteoarthritis, because of decreased articular inflammation and pain accompanied with the modulation of cytokine concentrations, which confirms the anti-arthritic and anti-inflammatory activities of B. conferta and support its popular use.

Troxerutin-Mediated Complement Pathway Inhibition is a Disease-Modifying Treatment for Inflammatory Arthritis

Troxerutin (TXR) is a phytochemical reported to possess anti-inflammatory and hepatoprotective effects. In this study, we aimed to exploit the antiarthritic properties of TXR using an adjuvant-induced arthritic (AIA) rat model. AIA-induced rats showed the highest arthritis score at the disease onset and by oral administration of TXR (50, 100, and 200 mg/kg body weight), reduced to basal level in a dose-dependent manner. Isobaric tags for relative and absolute quantitative (iTRAQ) proteomics tool were employed to identify deregulated joint homogenate proteins in AIA and TXR-treated rats to decipher the probable mechanism of TXR action in arthritis. iTRAQ analysis identified a set of 434 proteins with 65 deregulated proteins (log₂ case/control≥1.5) in AIA. Expressions of a set of important proteins (AAT, T-kininogen, vimentin, desmin, and nucleophosmin) that could classify AIA from the healthy ones were validated using Western blot analysis. The Western blot data corroborated proteomics findings. In silico protein–protein interaction study of tissue-proteome revealed that complement component 9 (C9), the major building blocks of the membrane attack complex (MAC) responsible for sterile inflammation, get perturbed in AIA. Our dosimetry study suggests that a TXR dose of 200 mg/kg body weight for 15 days is sufficient to bring the arthritis score to basal levels in AIA rats. We have shown the importance of TXR as an antiarthritic agent in the AIA model and after additional investigation, its arthritic ameliorating properties could be exploited for clinical usability.

Hepato- and cardioprotective effects of Baccharis trimera (Less.) DC. against multiple risk factors for chronic noncommunicable diseases

Cardiovascular diseases are associated with high morbidity and mortality worldwide and have several risk factors, including dyslipidemia, smoking, and hypertension. Studies have evaluated isolated risk factors in experimental models of cardiovascular disease, but few preclinical studies have assessed associations between multiple risk factors. In the present study, hypertensive Wistar rats (Goldblatt 2K1C model) received a 0.5% cholesterol diet and were exposed to tobacco smoke for 8 weeks. During the last 4 weeks, the animals were treated with vehicle, an ethanol-soluble fraction of B. trimera (30, 100, and 300 mg/kg), or simvastatin + enalapril. A group of normotensive, non-dyslipidemic, and non-smoking rats was treated with vehicle. The levels of aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase, urea, creatinine, and hepatic and fecal lipids, blood pressure, and mesenteric arterial bed reactivity were evaluated. Cardiac, hepatic, and renal histopathology and tecidual redox state were also investigated. Untreated animals exhibited significant changes in blood pressure, lipid profile, and biomarkers of heart, liver, and kidney damage. Treatment with B. trimera reversed these changes, with effects that were similar to simvastatin + enalapril. These findings suggest that B. trimera may be promising for the treatment of cardiovascular and hepatic disorders, especially disorders that are associated with multiple risk factors.

Ayurvedic Balarista ameliorate anti-arthritic activity in adjuvant induced arthritic rats by inhibiting pro-inflammatory cytokines and oxidative stress

BACKGROUND AND AIM

Balarista is a fermented ayurvedic liquid preparation recommended as a good therapy for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. In the present investigation, the anti-arthritic activity of in-house Balarista formulation and marketed M1, M2, M3 and M4 Balarista formulations at the dose of 2.31 ml/kg were studied on Complete Freund's adjuvant-induced arthritic rat model.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

Measurement of paw diameter, arthritic index, arthritic score, and body weight were made to assess the anti-arthritic activity. Alterations in hematological and biochemical parameters were carried out to ascertain the disease progression. The inflammatory mediators (TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6) were measured by the ELISA method. The oxidative stress parameters were evaluated in tissues of joint, liver, spleen and kidney. The histological and radiological changes in the ankle joint of rats were also studied.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSION

Administration of in-house and marketed formulations exhibited significant anti-arthritic activity by reducing all the arthritic parameters. The anomalous alterations in hematological and biochemical parameters were remarkably restored. The expression level of serum pro-inflammatory cytokines was significantly suppressed in treated animals. The oxidative stress, indicated by an increase in lipid peroxidation, decreased in antioxidant enzyme i.e. superoxide dismutase and catalase along with non-enzymatic reduced glutathione in tissues, were strongly counteracted by the formulation. Abnormal changes in arthritic ankle joints shown by X-ray and histological examination were significantly protected by the formulation. The present study suggests that the administration of in-house and marketed Balarista formulations have produced a significant anti-arthritic effect by inhibiting free radicals and inflammatory cytokines.

Protective effect of betulinic acid on Freund's complete adjuvant-induced arthritis in rats

The purpose of the experiment was to study the effects of betulinic acid (BA) on adjuvant-induced arthritis in rats. The rat model of rheumatoid arthritis (AA) was established by Freund's complete adjuvant. Arthritis index, joint pathology, toe swelling, hemorheology, related cytokines and ROCK/NF-κB signaling pathway were measured in rats. BA can significantly inhibit the arthritis index, improve joint pathology, reduce toe swelling, improve blood rheology, improve synovial cell apoptosis, and restore related cytokine negative regulation of ROCK/NF-κB signaling pathways. BA has an obvious therapeutic effect on joint inflammation of toes in AA model rats, which may be due to the regulation of ROCK/NF-κB signaling pathway.

Effect of umbelliferone on adjuvant-induced arthritis in rats by MAPK/NF-κB pathway

Purpose

Umbelliferone (Umb), a member of coumarin family, is found in many plants and is a promising molecule with potential anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidative, and anti-tumor activities. However, the effect of Umb on arthritis remains unclear.

Methods

A rat model with Freund's complete adjuvant (FCA)-induced arthritis was developed and used to test the efficacy of Umb on arthritis rats. Rats were given an intragastric injection of Umb (20 and 40 mg/kg) once daily from days 21 to 28 after the administration of FCA. Hind paw volume was assessed using a volume meter. The pro-inflammatory cytokine levels and prostaglandin E2 (PEG2) level in serum and synovial fluid were detected by ELISA. HE staining was used to determine representative histological changes in joint tissues, and Western blot analysis was employed to study the effects of Umb on MAPK/NF-κB signaling pathway.

Results

Our results showed that Umb suppressed the release of IL-6, IL-1β, tumor necrosis factor-alpha, and PEG2. In addition, Umb could also dramatically ameliorate the pathological changes observed in rat joints. Based on the results of Western blot, we also observed that Umb could strikingly suppress the expression of MAPK/NF-κB pathway molecules.

Conclusion

These results proved that treatment with Umb is very effective for arthritis and inhibiting the MAPK/NF-κB signaling pathway may be a potential therapeutic target for treatment of arthritis.

Intravenous anesthetic ketamine attenuates complete Freund's adjuvant-induced arthritis in rats via modulation of MAPKs/NF-κB

BACKGROUND

The current study was intended to investigate the effect of ketamine (KET) on complete Freund's adjuvant (CFA)-induced arthritis in rats.

METHODS

The CFA was administered in the hind paw of the rats for the induction of adjuvant-induced arthritis. The paw swelling of experimental animals was measured as hind paw volume. Hematoxylin and eosin staining was estimated and pathological changes in the joint tissues were observed under a light microscope. Furthermore, the bicinchoninic acid assay was used for protein quantification. The antibody-reactive bands were visualized using enhanced chemiluminescence.

RESULTS

The present study showed that KET significantly reduces the severity of arthritis in CFA mice. The therapeutic effects were linked with reduced joint swelling and destruction, as evidenced by analyzing rat paws. The KET also revealed to attenuate the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6). In western blot analysis, KET inhibit phosphorylation of MAPKs, IκBα and nuclear translocation NF-κB in the inflammatory joints of AIA rats. Moreover, KET showed to induce apoptosis via mitochondrial signalling pathways (Bcl2, Bax, cytochrome C, cleaved caspase-3 and cleaved caapse-9).

CONCLUSION

Taken together, KET show significant anti-rheumatoid arthritis activity via multiple mechanisms and may thus have therapeutic benefits for RA.

Metabolic fingerprinting of joint tissue of collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) rat: In vitro, high resolution NMR (nuclear magnetic resonance) spectroscopy based analysis

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a systemic autoimmune disease whose major characteristics persistent joint inflammation that results in joint destruction and failure of the function. Collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) rat is an autoimmune disease model and in many ways shares features with RA. The CIA is associated with systemic manifestations, including alterations in the metabolism. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy-based metabolomics has been successfully applied to the perchloric acid extract of the joint tissue of CIA rat and control rat for the analysis of aqueous metabolites. GPC (Glycerophosphocholine), carnitine, acetate, and creatinine were important discriminators of CIA rats as compared to control rats. Level of lactate (significance; p = 0.004), alanine (p = 0.025), BCA (Branched-chain amino acids) (p = 0.006) and creatinine (p = 0.023) was significantly higher in CIA rats as compared to control rats. Choline (p = 0.038) and GPC (p = 0.009) were significantly reduced in CIA rats as compared to control rats. Choline to GPC correlation was good and negative (Pearson correlation = -0.63) for CIA rats as well as for control rats (Pearson correlation = -0.79). All these analyses collectively considered as metabolic fingerprinting of the joint tissue of CIA rat as compared to control rat. The metabolic fingerprinting of joint tissue of CIA rats was different as compared to control rats. The metabolic fingerprinting reflects inflammatory disease activity in CIA rats with synovitis, demonstrating that underlying inflammatory process drives significant changes in metabolism that can be measured in the joint tissue. Therefore, the outcome of this study may be helpful for understanding the mechanism of metabolic processes in RA. This may be also helpful for the development of advanced diagnostic methods and therapy for RA.

Abnormal lipid metabolism in a rat model of arthritis: one possible pathway

Collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) animal model is associated with systemic manifestations, including alteration of lipid metabolism. In the present study, one possible pathway of altered lipid metabolism is proposed. Specimens of joint tissue and plasma were collected from the CIA and control rats, and quantitative analysis of lipid components was performed by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy technique. Correlation analysis was performed between the level of lipid components and antioxidant enzymes, lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), lipid peroxidation (LP), and cytokines in joint tissue and plasma. Differentiation between the CIA and control rats was established on the basis of the quantity of lipid components in the joint tissue and plasma. Positive correlation was observed for all the enzymes vs. lipid components as well as LP vs. lipid components in plasma and joint tissue. Positive correlation was observed for enzymes in plasma and joint tissue. A negative correlation was observed in between the plasma and joint tissue with the level of lipid components. Cytokine levels were also correlated with the level of lipid components and ratios of saturated fatty acids/unsaturated fatty acids in plasma and joint tissue. Inflammatory disease activity in CIA rats with synovitis brought about a significant change in lipid metabolism. Taken together, the results of our study are delineating a possible pathway of altered lipid metabolism in the CIA rat model, thereby contributing further to an understanding of the pathophysiology of rheumatoid arthritis (RA).

WITHDRAWN: Anti-arthritic effect of pilose antler peptide on adjuvant-induced rheumatoid arthritis in rats

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Discovery of New Benzothiazine Derivative as Modulator of Pro- and Anti-inflammatory Cytokines in Rheumatoid Arthritis

The anti-inflammatory activities of benzothiazine and pyrazole derivatives are well documented. A series of novel N'-arylmethylidene-2-(3,4-dimethyl-5,5-dioxidopyrazolo(4,3 c)(1,2) benzothiazin-2(4H)yl) acetohydrazide compounds were previously synthesized by combining benzothiazine and pyrazole moieties into a single nucleus. The current study investigates the anti-arthritic potential of 3-ethoxy-4-hydroxyphenyl derivative (EHP) and its possible mechanism in arthritic rat model. Sprague-Dawley rats were induced rheumatoid arthritis with Freund's complete adjuvant and treated with EHP and piroxicam. At the end of the study, arthritic score was calculated, and ankle joint histopathology was performed using hematoxylin and eosin staining. Real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) were used to determine mRNA expression and protein levels of various inflammatory markers, respectively. In vitro concanavalin A (ConA)-stimulated splenocyte proliferation was measured. Serum levels of C-reactive protein (CRP), urea, creatinine, aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine transaminase (ALT), and alkaline phosphatase (ALP) were also determined. EHP significantly attenuated macroscopic arthritic score, joint histopathological lesions, and CRP levels. Treatment with EHP significantly reduced pro-inflammatory tissue necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-кB), interleukin-17 (IL-17), and prostaglandin-E2 (PGE2) levels and increased the levels of anti-inflammatory interleukin-4 (IL-4) and interleukin-10 (IL-10). ConA-stimulated splenocyte proliferation was also significantly suppressed by treatment with EHP. Normalizing all hematological markers and ALP levels, EHP did not display any sign of nephrotoxicity and hepatotoxicity as determined by urea, creatinine, ALT, and AST levels. In conclusion, EHP possesses significant anti-arthritic property which may be attributed to its anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory effects.

Paederia foetida Linn. inhibits adjuvant induced arthritis by suppression of PGE(2) and COX-2 expression via nuclear factor-κB

The current investigation was undertaken to determine the anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects of Paederia foetida Linn. (PF) along with its mechanism of action when implemented in tissue protection. HPTLC was used in the identification of the compound quercetin, while in vitro analysis confirmed the significance of the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory action of PF. We initially demonstrated the in vivo anti-inflammatory effect of PF, evaluating it against a variety of phlogistic agents as well as turpentine oil, prostaglandin and arachidonic acid. Groups of rats, fasted overnight, were treated as follows: Group I: normal control (vehicle), Group II: PF (100 mg kg(-1)), Group III: arthritic control (CFA only, 0.05 ml), Group IV, V, VI: CFA (0.05 ml) + PF (25, 50 and 100 mg kg(-1)) and Group VII: CFA (0.05 ml) + indomethacin (10 mg per kg b.w.). PF significantly protected against paw edema, arthritic index and body weight alteration induced by Complete Fruend's Adjuvant (CFA). Other observations, like histological and macroscopic changes, were observed in CFA induced inflammation in knee joints. Subcutaneous administration of CFA was accompanied by proinflammatory cytokine status, as appraised by the amplification of interleukin-2 (IL-2), interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and tumor necrosis factor (TNF-α); oxidative stress status was estimated by the enhancement of the level of lipid peroxidation (LPO) and the depletion of superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and glutathione (GSH). Pre-treatment with PF significantly (P < 0.001) protected against CFA induced oxidative stress and proinflammatory cytokines. More prominently, CFA administration augmented tissue and plasma superoxide (O2) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) levels, while the PF pre-treatment significantly (P < 0.001) reversed all CFA induced intracellular interruption. Following CFA induced arthritis, PF was tested for its free radical scavenging activity against the DPPH and ABTS radicals and its inhibitory proficiency against COX-1 and COX-2 in vitro. Considering the above, the current research confirmed momentous protection against CFA induced arthritis, which could be attributed to its anti-inflammatory and pro-oxidant nature.

The protective effects of curculigoside A on adjuvant-induced arthritis by inhibiting NF-кB/NLRP3 activation in rats

The purpose of this study was to investigate the protective effects of curculigoside A (CA) on adjuvant arthritis (AA) rats and explore its possible mechanisms. AA was induced by intradermal injection of Freund's complete adjuvant (FCA). Male SD rats were treated with CA(10 and 20mg/kg) from days 18 to 24 after immunization. The levels of interleukin (IL)-6, IL-1β, tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) in serum were determined by ELISA. Moreover, the levels of super oxide dismutase (SOD) and malondialdehyde (MDA) were determined using commercial kits. In particular, NLRP3 inflammasome and NF-кB pathway were detected by Western blot. As expected, CA at 10 and 20mg/kg significantly relieved the hind paw swelling and arthritis index, reduced the levels of IL-6 IL-1β, PGE2, TNF-α, MDA and increased SOD activity in serum. In addition, CA effectively down-regulated the expression of NF-кB/NLRP3 pathway. These findings showed that CA exerted beneficial effects on rheumatoid arthritis in rats.

Effects of Naringenin on inflammation in complete freund's adjuvant-induced arthritis by regulating Bax/Bcl-2 balance

Naringin (COG) is a flavanone with various bioactivities including an expectorant effect, antitussive effect, and inhibitory effect on asthma and acute lung injury. The aims of the present study were to investigate the antiarthritis activities of COG and elucidate the underlying mechanisms with regard to its molecular basis of action for the best combination. Arthritis was induced by intradermal injection of complete Freund's adjuvant. Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly divided into five groups with 10 rats in each group: (1) control group, (2) AA group, (3) AA + dexamethasone (AA + Dex, 2 mg/kg), (4) AA + COG (20 mg/kg), (5) AA + COG (40 mg/kg). Paw swelling was measured, and the production of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin (IL)-1β, and IL-6 was detected by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) in serum. Pathological changes of joints tissues were observed by hematoxylin and eosin (HE) staining. Apoptosis of synovial tissues was measured by terminal dUTP nick-end labeling (TUNEL) assay. The expressions of apoptosis-related molecules, including Bcl-2 and Bax, were determined by Western blotting. In both COG and Dex treatments, COG and Dex significantly suppressed paw swelling in AA rats. Moreover, COG and Dex significantly suppressed the production of TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 in serum. HE staining study demonstrated that COG and Dex significantly suppressed pathological changes of joints tissues; TUNEL assay demonstrated that COG and Dex induced apoptosis of AA via regulation of the protein expression of Bcl-2 and Bax. These data suggest that COG may have therapeutic potential for RA.

A novel coumarin derivative, 8-methoxy chromen-2-one alleviates collagen induced arthritis by down regulating nitric oxide, NFκB and proinflammatory cytokines

Ruta graveolens (Rue) is a well-known medicinal plant having anti-inflammatory and other healing properties. This contains many active phytochemicals such as coumarins which possess anti-inflammatory and anti-cancer activities. The present study was carried out to evaluate the therapeutic potential of a newly isolated coumarin derivative from rue plant, 8-methoxy-chromen-2-one (MCO) in the collagen induced arthritic (CIA) rat model. MCO showed inhibition of cytokines and NF-κB in LPS stimulated J774 cells which prompted its possible use in animal. In CIA, arthritic index and arthritic score reduced markedly within 15days of MCO treatment at doses of 2mg and 20mg per kg body weight. Alleviation of joint damage in CIA animals on treatment with MCO was evident from radiographic and histological data. Behavioral studies by open field tests also showed convalescence in the MCO treated CIA rats. Further, escalated plasma levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6, and also nitric oxide reduced significantly with the treatment. All these results indicate the therapeutic efficacy of MCO and its possible use as an anti-arthritic drug.

Frankincense and myrrh suppress inflammation via regulation of the metabolic profiling and the MAPK signaling pathway

Frankincense and myrrh are highly effective in treatment of inflammatory diseases, but lacking of thetherapy mechanisms. We undertook this study to evaluate the effects on Adjuvant-induced Arthritis(AIA) rats and to explore the underlying mechanisms by analyzing the metabolic profiling and signalingpathway evaluated by expression of inflammatory cytokines, c-jun and c-fos and corresponding phosphorylationlevels. [corrected]. The results stated the elevated expression levels of TNFα, PGE2, IL-2, NO, and MDA in serum and swelling paw of AIA rats were significantly decreased after treatment, which exerted more remarkable inhibitive effects of combined therapy. The metbolic profiling of plasma and urine were clearly improved and twenty-one potential biomarkers were identified. Moreover, the inhibited effects of five bioactive components on cytokine transcription in PHA stimulated-PBMC showed the MAPK pathway might account for this phenomenon with considerable reduction in phosphorylated forms of all the three MAPK (ERK1/2, p38 and JNK) and down regulation of c-jun and c-fos.

Medicinal plants with potential anti-arthritic activity

ETHNO PHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Traditional medicinal plants are practiced worldwide for treatment of arthritis especially in developing countries where resources are meager. This review presents the plants profiles inhabiting throughout the world regarding their traditional usage by various tribes/ethnic groups for treatment of arthritis.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Bibliographic investigation was carried out by analyzing classical text books and peer reviewed papers, consulting worldwide accepted scientific databases from the last six decades. Plants/their parts/extracts/polyherbal formulations, toxicity studies for arthritis have been included in the review article. The profiles presented also include information about the scientific name, family, dose, methodology along with mechanism of action and toxicity profile. Research status of 20 potential plant species has been discussed. Further, geographical distribution of research, plants distribution according to families has been given in graphical form.

RESULTS

485 plant species belonging to 100 families, traditionally used in arthritis are used. Among 100 plant families, malvaceae constitute 16, leguminasae 7, fabaceae 13, euphorbiaceae 7, compositae 20, araceae 7, solanaceae 12, liliaceae 9, apocynaceae, lauraceae, and rubiaceae 10, and remaining in lesser proportion. It was observed in our study that majority of researches are carried mainly in developing countries like India, China, Korea and Nigeria.

CONCLUSION

This review clearly indicates that list of medicinal plants presented in this review might be useful to researchers as well as practioners. This review can be useful for preliminary screening of potential anti-arthritis plants. Further toxicity profile given in the review can be useful for the researchers for finding the safe dose.

In vitro and in vivo toxicological evaluation of extract and fractions from Baccharis trimera with anti-inflammatory activity

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Baccharis trimera (Less) DC. (Asteraceae), popularly known in Brazil as "carqueja", have been used in folk medicine to treat gastrointestinal, hepatic and renal diseases, and inflammatory processes as rheumatism.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To evaluate the in vitro and in vivo toxicological effects of anti-inflammatory Baccharis trimera aqueous extract and fractions.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Aqueous extract of Baccharis trimera (AEBt) was produced by infusion in boiling water. After lyophylization AEBt was extracted with 80% ethanol, originating the ethanolic supernatant fraction (EFBt) and the aqueous sediment fraction (AFBt). Anti-inflammatory properties of AEBt, EFBt or AFBt (3, 30 or 300 μg/kg b.w.) were evaluated by the carrageenan-induced mouse paw edema using indomethacin (10mg/kg) as positive control. The growth of rat hepatoma cells (HTC) and human embryo kidney epithelial cells (HEK) was determined by protein staining assay. Cytotoxicity was assayed by the tetrazolium salt (MTT) reduction. Cyclosporin was used as reference cytotoxic drug for spleen cells and doxorubicin for HTC and HEK cells. For in vivo toxicological evaluation SW male mice were daily and oral (gavage) treated with extract/fractions at 4.2mg/kg or 42 mg/kg during 15 days. After treatment liver or kidney cells were submitted to comet assay to determine the DNA damage index, and the glutathione S-transferase activity was assayed towards ETHA (class Pi) and CDNB (several classes). Mutagenicity was evaluated by the Ames test using Salmonella typhimurium strains TA97, TA98, TA100, and TA102.

RESULTS

The anti-inflammatory effects of EFBt were higher than those of AEBt or AFBt. Mice treatment (3-300 μg/kg) with AFBt reduced the paw edema (3h) at lower levels (29.2-37.3%; P<0.01), than those observed for AEBt (44.7-54.2%; P<0.001), EFBt (49.3-58.2%; P<0.001) or indomethacin (64.6%, P<0.001, 10mg/kg). The growth of kidney cells (HEK) was inhibited by AEBt (IC(50) 182.6 μg/ml), EFBt (IC(50) 78.1 μg/ml) and AFBt (IC(50) 86.2 μg/ml), with lower effects on HTC hepatic cell (IC(50) 308.8 μg/ml, 396.5 μg/ml and 167.9 μg/ml, respectively). As evaluated by MTT test, AFBt exhibited cytotoxicity for HEK cells (IC(50) 372.5 μg/ml), but none for HTC ones; by the way, AFBt stimulated spleen cells (EC(50) 2.2 μg/ml) while cyclosporine, a cytotoxic reference drug inhibited them with IC(50) of 0.42 μg/ml; the IC(50) for doxorubicin for HEK and HTC cells was 0.28 μg/ml and 14.4 μg/ml, respectively, at 96h. No mutagenic potential was observed. Mice treatment with AEBt or AFBt at 42 mg/kg for 15 days altered the kidney relative weight, but not at 4.2mg/kg. Baccharis trimera did not change liver, spleen or popliteal lymph node relative weight. DNA damage index of kidney cells was observed on mice treated with AEBt/AFBt, but not on animals treated with EFBt, while DNA lesions were detected on liver cells only after AFBt treatment. The general activities of hepatic GST and Pi GST were reduced by EFBt and AFBt treatment, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

Baccharis trimera did not show mutagenicity, inhibited the GST activity, a hepatic detoxification enzyme, and induced in vivo (genotoxicity) and in vitro toxicological effects to kidney cells.