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Salazar-González RA, Doll MA, Hein DW. N-acetyltransferase 2 genetic polymorphism modifies genotoxic and oxidative damage from new psychoactive substances. Arch Toxicol 2023; 97:189-199. [PMID: 36138126 PMCID: PMC10187882 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-022-03383-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2022] [Accepted: 09/14/2022] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
The use of new psychoactive substances (NPS) as drugs of abuse is common and increasingly popular, particularly among youth and neglected communities. Recent studies have reported acute toxic effects from these chemicals; however, their long-term toxicity is unknown. Genetic differences between individuals likely affect the toxicity risk. Arylamine N-acetyltransferase 2 (NAT2) capacity differs among individuals due to genetic inheritance. The goal of the present study is to investigate the gene-environment interaction between NAT2 polymorphism and toxicity after exposure to these chemicals. We measured N-acetylation by human NAT1 and NAT2 and found that N-acetylation of NPS is carried out exclusively by NAT2. Differences in N-acetylation between NAT2*4 (reference allele) and NAT2*5B (common variant allele) were highly significant (p < 0.0001). Using DNA repair-deficient genetically engineered Chinese hamster ovary (CHO cells), expressing human CYP1A2 and either NAT2*4 or NAT2*5B, we measured the induction of DNA double-strand breaks ([Formula: see text]H2Ax) following treatment of the CHO cells with increasing concentrations of NPS. The induction of [Formula: see text]H2Ax showed a NAT2 allele-dependent response, higher in the NAT2*4 vs NAT2*5B alleles (p < 0.05). Induction of oxidative stress (ROS/RNS) was evaluated; we observed NAT2 allele-dependent response for all compounds in concentrations as low as 10 [Formula: see text]M, where NAT2*4 showed increased ROS/RNS vs NAT2*5B (p < 0.05). In summary, NPS are N-acetylated by NAT2 at rates higher in cells expressing NAT2*4 than NAT2*5B. Exposure to psychoactive chemicals results in genotoxic and oxidative damage that is modified by the NAT2 genetic polymorphism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raúl A Salazar-González
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Medicine, University of Louisville, 505 S. Hancock Street, CTR Rm 303, Louisville, KY, 40202, USA
| | - Mark A Doll
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Medicine, University of Louisville, 505 S. Hancock Street, CTR Rm 303, Louisville, KY, 40202, USA
| | - David W Hein
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Medicine, University of Louisville, 505 S. Hancock Street, CTR Rm 303, Louisville, KY, 40202, USA.
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Wagmann L, Hempel N, Richter LHJ, Brandt SD, Stratford A, Meyer MR. Phenethylamine-derived new psychoactive substances 2C-E-FLY, 2C-EF-FLY, and 2C-T-7-FLY: Investigations on their metabolic fate including isoenzyme activities and their toxicological detectability in urine screenings. Drug Test Anal 2019; 11:1507-1521. [PMID: 31299701 DOI: 10.1002/dta.2675] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2019] [Revised: 07/05/2019] [Accepted: 07/07/2019] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Psychoactive substances of the 2C-series are phenethylamine-based designer drugs that can induce psychostimulant and hallucinogenic effects. The so-called 2C-FLY series contains rigidified methoxy groups integrated in a 2,3,6,7-tetrahydrobenzo[1,2-b:4,5-b']difuran core. The aim of the presented work was to investigate the in vivo and in vitro metabolic fate including isoenzyme activities and toxicological detectability of the three new psychoactive substances (NPS) 2C-E-FLY, 2C-EF-FLY, and 2C-T-7-FLY to allow clinical and forensic toxicologists the identification of these novel compounds. Rat urine, after oral administration, and pooled human liver S9 fraction (pS9) incubations were analyzed by liquid chromatography-high-resolution tandem mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS/MS). By performing activity screenings, the human isoenzymes involved were identified and toxicological detectability in rat urine investigated using standard urine screening approaches (SUSAs) based on gas chromatography (GC)-MS, LC-MSn , and LC-HRMS/MS. In total, 32 metabolites were tentatively identified. Main metabolic steps consisted of hydroxylation and N-acetylation. Phase I metabolic reactions were catalyzed by CYP2D6, 3A4, and FMO3 and N-acetylation by NAT1 and NAT2. Methoxyamine was used as a trapping agent for detection of the deaminated metabolite formed by MAO-A and B. Interindividual differences in the metabolism of the 2C-FLY drugs could be caused by polymorphisms of enzymes involved or drug-drug interactions. All three SUSAs were shown to be suitable to detect an intake of these NPS but common metabolites of 2C-E-FLY and 2C-EF-FLY have to be considered during interpretation of analytical findings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lea Wagmann
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Center for Molecular Signaling (PZMS), Saarland University, Homburg, Germany
| | - Nora Hempel
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Center for Molecular Signaling (PZMS), Saarland University, Homburg, Germany
| | - Lilian H J Richter
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Center for Molecular Signaling (PZMS), Saarland University, Homburg, Germany
| | - Simon D Brandt
- School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK
| | | | - Markus R Meyer
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Center for Molecular Signaling (PZMS), Saarland University, Homburg, Germany
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Richter LHJ, Kaminski YR, Noor F, Meyer MR, Maurer HH. Metabolic fate of desomorphine elucidated using rat urine, pooled human liver preparations, and human hepatocyte cultures as well as its detectability using standard urine screening approaches. Anal Bioanal Chem 2016; 408:6283-94. [PMID: 27372715 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-016-9740-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2016] [Revised: 06/14/2016] [Accepted: 06/22/2016] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Desomorphine is an opioid misused as "crocodile", a cheaper alternative to heroin. It is a crude synthesis product homemade from codeine with toxic byproducts. The aim of the present work was to investigate the metabolic fate of desomorphine in vivo using rat urine and in vitro using pooled human liver microsomes and cytosol as well as human liver cell lines (HepG2 and HepaRG) by Orbitrap-based liquid chromatography-high resolution-tandem mass spectrometry or hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography. According to the identified metabolites, the following metabolic steps could be proposed: N-demethylation, hydroxylation at various positions, N-oxidation, glucuronidation, and sulfation. The cytochrome P450 (CYP) initial activity screening revealed CYP3A4 to be the only CYP involved in all phase I steps. UDP-glucuronyltransferase (UGT) initial activity screening showed that UGT1A1, UGT1A8, UGT1A9, UGT1A10, UGT2B4, UGT2B7, UGT2B15, and UGT2B17 formed desomorphine glucuronide. Among the tested in vitro models, HepaRG cells were identified to be the most suitable tool for prediction of human hepatic phase I and II metabolism of drugs of abuse. Finally, desomorphine (crocodile) consumption should be detectable by all standard urine screening approaches mainly via the parent compound and/or its glucuronide assuming similar kinetics in rats and humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lilian H J Richter
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Saarland University, Kirrberger Strasse 100, 66421, Homburg (Saar), Germany
| | - Yeda Rumi Kaminski
- Biochemical Engineering Institute, Saarland University, Campus A1 5, 66123, Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Fozia Noor
- Biochemical Engineering Institute, Saarland University, Campus A1 5, 66123, Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Markus R Meyer
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Saarland University, Kirrberger Strasse 100, 66421, Homburg (Saar), Germany.,Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacoepidemiology, Heidelberg University Hospital, Im Neuenheimer Feld 410, 69120, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Hans H Maurer
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Saarland University, Kirrberger Strasse 100, 66421, Homburg (Saar), Germany.
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Negreira N, Kinyua J, De Brabanter N, Maudens K, van Nuijs ALN. Identification of in vitro and in vivo human metabolites of the new psychoactive substance nitracaine by liquid chromatography coupled to quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry. Anal Bioanal Chem 2016; 408:5221-9. [PMID: 27185541 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-016-9616-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2016] [Revised: 04/13/2016] [Accepted: 05/02/2016] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of this work was to investigate the in vitro metabolism of nitracaine, a new psychoactive substance, using human liver microsome incubations, to evaluate the cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzyme isoforms responsible for the phase-I metabolism and to compare the information from the in vitro experiments with data resulting from an authentic user's urine sample. Accurate mass spectra of metabolites were obtained using liquid chromatography-quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LC-QTOF-MS) and were used in the structural identification of metabolites. Two major and three minor phase-I metabolites were identified from the in vitro experiments. The observed phase-I metabolites were formed through N-deethylation, N,N-deethylation, N-hydroxylation, and de-esterification, with CYP2B6 and CYP2C19 being the main enzymes catalyzing their formation. One glucuronidated product was identified in the phase-II metabolism experiments. All of these metabolites are reported for the first time in this study except the N-deethylation product. All the in vitro metabolites except the minor N,N-deethylation product were also present in the human urine sample, thus demonstrating the reliability of the in vitro experiments in the prediction of the in vivo metabolism of nitracaine. In addition to the metabolites, three transformation products (p-nitrobenzoic acid, p-aminobenzoic acid, and 3-(diethylamino)-2,2-dimethylpropan-1-ol) were identified, as well as several glucuronides and glutamine derived of them.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noelia Negreira
- Toxicological Center, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610, Wilrijk-Antwerp, Belgium.
| | - Juliet Kinyua
- Toxicological Center, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610, Wilrijk-Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Nik De Brabanter
- Department of Clinical Biology, Universitair Ziekenhuis Brussel, Laarbeeklaan 101, Jette, 1090, Brussel, Belgium
| | - Kristof Maudens
- Toxicological Center, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610, Wilrijk-Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Alexander L N van Nuijs
- Toxicological Center, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610, Wilrijk-Antwerp, Belgium.
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Rioux N, Mitchell LH, Tiller P, Plant K, Shaw J, Frost K, Ribich S, Moyer MP, Copeland RA, Chesworth R, Waters NJ. Structural and Kinetic Characterization of a Novel N-acetylated Aliphatic Amine Metabolite of the PRMT Inhibitor, EPZ011652. Drug Metab Dispos 2015; 43:936-43. [PMID: 25887455 DOI: 10.1124/dmd.115.064014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2015] [Accepted: 04/17/2015] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Pharmacokinetic and metabolite identification studies were conducted to understand the clearance pathways of EPZ011652 [(2-aminoethyl)(methyl)({3-[4-(propan-2-yloxy)phenyl]-1H-pyrazol-4-yl}methyl)amine], a potent protein arginine N-methyltransferase inhibitor. Metabolic clearance was the major pathway of EPZ011652 elimination in rats with structural elucidation of metabolites via liquid chromatography - mass spectrometry (LC-MS(n)) accurate mass measurement revealing the formation of a novel aliphatic N-acetylated metabolite (M1) located on the terminal nitrogen of the ethylene-diamine side chain. EPZ015564, a synthetic standard of the N-acetyl product, was prepared and was also generated by human and rat, but not dog hepatocytes. In rat hepatocytes, on incubation with EPZ011652, the concentration of EPZ015564 initially increased before decreasing with incubation time, suggesting that the metabolite is itself a substrate for other metabolizing enzymes, in agreement with the identification of metabolites M2, M3, and M4 in rat bile, all N-acetylated metabolites, undergoing sequential phase I (demethylation, oxidation) or phase II (sulfation) reactions. Reaction phenotyping with recombinant human N-acetyltransferase (NAT) isoforms revealed that both NAT1 and NAT2 are capable of acetylating EPZ011652, although with different catalytic efficiencies. Kinetic profiles of EPZ015564 formation followed classic Michaelis-Menten behavior with apparent Km values of >1000 μM for NAT1 and 165 ± 14.1 µM for NAT2. The in vitro intrinsic clearance for EPZ011652 by NAT2 (110 μL/min/mg) was 500-fold greater than by NAT1. In summary, we report the unusual N-acetylation of an aliphatic amine and discuss the implications for drug discovery and clinical development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathalie Rioux
- Epizyme, Cambridge, Massachusetts (N.R., L.H.M., S.R., M.P.M., R.A.C., R.C., N.J.W.); RMI Laboratories, North Wales, Pennsylvania (P.T.); and Cyprotex, Macclesfield, Cheshire, United Kingdom (K.P., J.S., K.F.)
| | - Lorna H Mitchell
- Epizyme, Cambridge, Massachusetts (N.R., L.H.M., S.R., M.P.M., R.A.C., R.C., N.J.W.); RMI Laboratories, North Wales, Pennsylvania (P.T.); and Cyprotex, Macclesfield, Cheshire, United Kingdom (K.P., J.S., K.F.)
| | - Philip Tiller
- Epizyme, Cambridge, Massachusetts (N.R., L.H.M., S.R., M.P.M., R.A.C., R.C., N.J.W.); RMI Laboratories, North Wales, Pennsylvania (P.T.); and Cyprotex, Macclesfield, Cheshire, United Kingdom (K.P., J.S., K.F.)
| | - Katie Plant
- Epizyme, Cambridge, Massachusetts (N.R., L.H.M., S.R., M.P.M., R.A.C., R.C., N.J.W.); RMI Laboratories, North Wales, Pennsylvania (P.T.); and Cyprotex, Macclesfield, Cheshire, United Kingdom (K.P., J.S., K.F.)
| | - Joanne Shaw
- Epizyme, Cambridge, Massachusetts (N.R., L.H.M., S.R., M.P.M., R.A.C., R.C., N.J.W.); RMI Laboratories, North Wales, Pennsylvania (P.T.); and Cyprotex, Macclesfield, Cheshire, United Kingdom (K.P., J.S., K.F.)
| | - Kerry Frost
- Epizyme, Cambridge, Massachusetts (N.R., L.H.M., S.R., M.P.M., R.A.C., R.C., N.J.W.); RMI Laboratories, North Wales, Pennsylvania (P.T.); and Cyprotex, Macclesfield, Cheshire, United Kingdom (K.P., J.S., K.F.)
| | - Scott Ribich
- Epizyme, Cambridge, Massachusetts (N.R., L.H.M., S.R., M.P.M., R.A.C., R.C., N.J.W.); RMI Laboratories, North Wales, Pennsylvania (P.T.); and Cyprotex, Macclesfield, Cheshire, United Kingdom (K.P., J.S., K.F.)
| | - Mikel P Moyer
- Epizyme, Cambridge, Massachusetts (N.R., L.H.M., S.R., M.P.M., R.A.C., R.C., N.J.W.); RMI Laboratories, North Wales, Pennsylvania (P.T.); and Cyprotex, Macclesfield, Cheshire, United Kingdom (K.P., J.S., K.F.)
| | - Robert A Copeland
- Epizyme, Cambridge, Massachusetts (N.R., L.H.M., S.R., M.P.M., R.A.C., R.C., N.J.W.); RMI Laboratories, North Wales, Pennsylvania (P.T.); and Cyprotex, Macclesfield, Cheshire, United Kingdom (K.P., J.S., K.F.)
| | - Richard Chesworth
- Epizyme, Cambridge, Massachusetts (N.R., L.H.M., S.R., M.P.M., R.A.C., R.C., N.J.W.); RMI Laboratories, North Wales, Pennsylvania (P.T.); and Cyprotex, Macclesfield, Cheshire, United Kingdom (K.P., J.S., K.F.)
| | - Nigel J Waters
- Epizyme, Cambridge, Massachusetts (N.R., L.H.M., S.R., M.P.M., R.A.C., R.C., N.J.W.); RMI Laboratories, North Wales, Pennsylvania (P.T.); and Cyprotex, Macclesfield, Cheshire, United Kingdom (K.P., J.S., K.F.)
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