Long-term neurological and neuropsychological complications of sulfur mustard and Lewisite mixture poisoning in Chinese victims exposed to chemical warfare agents abandoned at the end of WWII

The c-Fos/AP-1 inhibitor inhibits sulfur mustard-induced chondrogenesis impairment in zebrafish larvae

Sulfur mustard (SM, dichlorodiethyl sulfide) is a potent erosive chemical poison that can cause pulmonary lung, skin and eye disease complications in humans. Currently, there is no designated remedy for SM, and its operation's toxicological process remains unidentified. This work employed zebrafish as a model organism to investigate the toxic manifestations and mechanisms of exposure to SM, aiming to offer novel insights for preventing and treating this condition. The results showed that SM caused a decrease in the survival rate of the zebrafish larvae (LC50 = 2.47 mg/L), a reduction in the hatching rate, an increase in the pericardial area, and small head syndrome. However, T-5224 (a selective inhibitor of c-Fos/activator protein) attenuated the reduction in mortality (LC50 = 2.79 mg/L), the reduction in hatching rate, and the worsening of morphological changes. We discovered that SM causes cartilage developmental disorders in zebrafish larvae. The reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction found that SM increased the expression of inflammation-related genes (IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α) and significantly increased cartilage development-related gene expression (fosab, mmp9, and atf3). However, the expression of sox9a, sox9b, and Col2a1a was reduced. The protein level detection also found an increase in c-fos protein expression and a significant decrease in COL2A1 expression. However, T-5224,also and mitigated the changes in gene expression, and protein levels caused by SM exposure. The results of this study indicate that SM-induced cartilage development disorders are closely related to the c-Fos/AP-1 pathway in zebrafish.

Arsenic species in soil profiles from chemical weapons (CWs) burial sites of China: Contamination characteristics, degradation process and migration mechanism

In this study, soil profiles and pore water from Japanese abandoned arsenic-containing chemical weapons (CWs) burial sites in Dunhua, China were analyzed to understand the distribution of arsenic (As) contamination, degradation, and migration processes. Results of As species analysis showed that the As-containing agents underwent degradation with an average rate of 87.55 ± 0.13%, producing inorganic pentavalent arsenic (As5+) and organic arsenic such as 2-chlorovinylarsonic acid (CVAOA), triphenylarsenic (TPA), and phenylarsine oxide (PAO). Organic arsenic pollutants accounted for 1.27-18.20% of soil As. In the vertical profiles, total As concentrations peaked at about 40-60 cm burial depth, and the surface agricultural soil exhibited moderate to heavy contamination level, whereas the contamination level was insignificant below 1 m, reflecting As migration was relatively limited throughout the soil profile. Sequential extraction showed Fe/Al-bound As was the predominant fraction, and poorly-crystalline Fe minerals adsorbed 33.23-73.13% of soil As. Oxygen-susceptible surface soil formed poorly-crystalline Fe3+ minerals, greatly reducing downward migration of arsenic. However, the reduction of oxidizing conditions below 2 m soil depth may promote As activity and require attention.

HSP90, a Common Therapeutic Target for Suppressing Skin Injury Caused by Exposure to Chemically Diverse Classes of Blistering Agents

Vesicants such as arsenicals and mustards produce highly painful cutaneous inflammatory and blistering responses, hence developed as chemical weapons during World War I/II. Here, using lewisite and sulfur mustard surrogates, namely phenylarsine oxide (PAO) and 2-chloroethyl ethyl sulfide (CEES), respectively, we defined a common underlying mechanism of toxic action by these two distinct classes of vesicants. Murine skin exposure to these chemicals causes tissue destruction characterized by increase in skin bifold thickness, Draize score, infiltration of inflammatory cells, and apoptosis of epidermal and dermal cells. RNA sequencing analysis identified ∼346 inflammatory genes that were commonly altered by both PAO and CEES, along with the identification of cytokine signaling activation as the top canonical pathway. Activation of several proinflammatory genes and pathways is associated with phosphorylation-dependent activation of heat shock protein 90α (p-HSP90α). Topical treatment with known HSP90 inhibitors SNX-5422 and IPI-504 post PAO or CEES skin challenge significantly attenuated skin damage including reduction in overall skin injury and clinical scores. In addition, highly upregulated inflammatory genes Saa3, Cxcl1, Ccl7, IL-6, Nlrp3, Csf3, Chil3, etc. by both PAO and CEES were significantly diminished by treatment with HSP90 inhibitors. These drugs not only reduced PAO- or CEES-induced p-HSP90α expression but also its client proteins NLRP3 and pP38 and the expression of their target inflammatory genes. Our data confirm a critical role of HSP90 as a shared underlying molecular target of toxicity by these two distinct vesicants and provide an effective and novel medical countermeasure to suppress vesicant-induced skin injury. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Development of effective and novel mechanism-based antidotes that can simultaneously block cutaneous toxic manifestations of distinct vesicants is important and urgently needed. Due to difficulties in determining the exact nature of onsite chemical exposure, a potent drug that can suppress widespread cutaneous damage may find great utility. Thus, this study identified HSP90 as a common molecular regulator of cutaneous inflammation and injury by two distinct warfare vesicants, arsenicals and mustards, and HSP90 inhibitors afford significant protection against skin damage.

MiR-146a-5p delivered by hucMSC extracellular vesicles modulates the inflammatory response to sulfur mustard-induced acute lung injury

BACKGROUND

Sulfur mustard (SM) is a highly toxic chemical warfare agent that has caused numerous casualties during wars and conflicts in the past century. Specific antidotes or therapeutic strategies are rare due to the complicated mechanism of toxicity, which still awaits elucidation. Clinical data show that acute lung injury (ALI) is responsible for most mortality and morbidity after SM exposure. Extracellular vesicles are natural materials that participate in intercellular communication by delivering various substances and can be modified. In this study, we aim to show that extracellular vesicles derived from human umbilical cord mesenchymal stromal cells (hucMSC-EVs) could exert therapeutic effects on SM-induced ALI, and to explain the underlying mechanism of effects.

METHODS

MiR-146a-5p contained in hucMSC-EVs may be involved in the process of hucMSC-EVs modulating the inflammatory response to SM-induced ALI. We utilized miR-146a-5p delivered by extracellular vesicles and further modified hucMSCs with a miR-146a-5p mimic or inhibitor to collect miR-146a-5p-overexpressing extracellular vesicles (miR-146a-5p⁺-EVs) or miR-146a-5p-underexpressing extracellular vesicles (miR-146a-5p^--EVs), respectively. Through in vivo and in vitro experiments, we investigated the mechanism.

RESULTS

The effect of miR-146a-5p⁺-EVs on improving the inflammatory reaction tied to SM injury was better than that of hucMSC-EVs. We demonstrated that miR-146a-5p delivered by hucMSC-EVs targeted TRAF6 to negatively regulate inflammation in SM-induced ALI models in vitro and in vivo.

CONCLUSION

In summary, miR-146a-5p delivered by hucMSC-EVs targeted TRAF6, causing hucMSC-EVs to exert anti-inflammatory effects in SM-induced ALI; thus, hucMSC-EVs treatment may be a promising clinical therapeutic after SM exposure.

Cutaneous Exposure to Arsenicals Is Associated with Development of Constrictive Bronchiolitis in Mice

Organoarsenicals, such as lewisite and related chloroarsine, diphenylchloroarsine (DPCA), are chemical warfare agents developed during World War I. Stockpiles in Eastern Europe remain a threat to humans. The well-documented effects of cutaneous exposure to these organoarsenicals include skin blisters, painful burns, and life-threatening conditions such as acute respiratory distress syndrome. In survivors, long-term effects such as the development of respiratory ailments are reported for the organoarsenical sulfur mustard; however, no long-term pulmonary effects are documented for lewisite and DPCA. No animal models exist to explore the relationship between skin exposure to vesicants and constrictive bronchiolitis. We developed and characterized a mouse model to study the long-term effects of cutaneous exposure on the lungs after exposure to a sublethal dose of organoarsenicals. We exposed mice to lewisite, DPCA, or a less toxic surrogate organoarsenic chemical, phenyl arsine oxide, on the skin. The surviving mice were followed for 20 weeks after skin exposure to arsenicals. Lung microcomputed tomography, lung function, and histology demonstrated increased airway resistance, increased thickness of the smooth muscle layer, increased collagen deposition in the subepithelium, and peribronchial lymphocyte infiltration in mice exposed to arsenical on skin.

Retinal injury mouse model and pathophysiological assessment of the effect of arsenical vesicants

The eye is ten times more vulnerable to chemical warfare agents than other organs. Consistently, exposure to vesicant arsenical lewisite (LEW) manifests significant corneal damage leading to chronic inflammation, corneal opacity, vascularization, and edema, culminating in corneal cell death. However, despite the progress has made in the research field investigating arsenical-induced pathogenesis of the anterior chamber of the eye, the retinal damage resulted from exposure to arsenicals has not been identified yet. Therefore, we investigated the effects of direct ocular exposure (DOE) to LEW and phenylarsine oxide (PAO) on the retina. DOE to arsenicals was conducted using the vapor cap method at the MRIGlobal facility or an eye patch soaked in solutions with different PAO concentrations at UAB. Animals were assessed at 1, 3, 14, and 28 days postexposure. Results of the study demonstrated that both arsenicals cause severe retinal damage, activating proinflammatory programs and launching apoptotic cell death. Moreover, the DOE to PAO resulted in diminishing ERG amplitudes in a dose-dependent manner, indicating severe retinal damage. The current study established a prototype mouse model of arsenical-induced ocular damage that can be widely used to identify the key cellular signaling pathways involved in retinal damage pathobiology and to validate medical countermeasures against the progression of ocular damage.

Clinical and experimental research progress on neurotoxicity of sulfur mustard and its possible mechanisms

Sulfur mustard (SM), an extremely reactive alkylating toxicant, which poses a continuing threat to both military and civilian populations. SM targets three major organs including skin, eyes and lungs. In recent years, more and more clinical findings have shown that cognitive and emotional disorders in veterans intoxicated with SM, such as anxiety, depression, apathy, cognitive decline and so on, which indicated the long time toxic effects on mental and neurological health of SM. The experimental studies in animal and cell models have also found neurotoxicity which are similar to clinical results. However, these neuropsychological problems are not studied well in victims of SM and the mental and neurological complications are often not subjected to treatment or undertreated. Until now, the exact mechanism of the action of SM toxicity has not been elucidated and no specific therapy for its poisoning exists. Therefore, the studies on neurotoxicity of SM should be strengthened. This review summarizes the main progress of clinical and experimental researches on neurotoxicity of SM for the past few years.

A review of chemical warfare agents linked to respiratory and neurological effects experienced in Gulf War Illness

Over 40% of veterans from the Persian Gulf War (GW) (1990-1991) suffer from Gulf War Illness (GWI). Thirty years since the GW, the exposure and mechanism contributing to GWI remain unclear. One possible exposure that has been attributed to GWI are chemical warfare agents (CWAs). While there are treatments for isolated symptoms of GWI, the number of respiratory and cognitive/neurological issues continues to rise with minimum treatment options. This issue does not only affect veterans of the GW, importantly these chronic multisymptom illnesses (CMIs) are also growing amongst veterans who have served in the Afghanistan-Iraq war. What both wars have in common are their regions and inhaled exposures. In this review, we will describe the CWA exposures, such as sarin, cyclosarin, and mustard gas in both wars and discuss the various respiratory and neurocognitive issues experienced by veterans. We will bridge the respiratory and neurological symptoms experienced to the various potential mechanisms described for each CWA provided with the most up-to-date models and hypotheses.

Catalytic degradation of CWAs with MOF-808 and PCN-222: Toward practical application

Chemical warfare agents, such as nerve agents (GD and VX) and blister agents (HD), have strong toxicities to mankind. In recent years, zirconium-based metal-organic frameworks have been found to be attractive materials for chemical warfare agent degradation. Among them, metal-organic framework-808 (MOF-808) and porous coordination network-222 (PCN-222) were the best. However, few papers pay attention to their practical application. In this work, we prepared MOF-808 and PCN-222 using water phase and organic solvothermal methods, respectively. Their performance for the catalytic degradation of chemical warfare agents under practical decontamination conditions was studied. The results showed that MOF-808 displayed a high potency for catalytic hydrolysis of VX (10,000 mg L−1) in unbuffered solution. PCN-222 exhibited weaker reactivity with a half-life ( t1/2) of 28.8 min. Their different performances might stem from the different connectivity of the Zr6 nodes and framework structures. The results illustrated that the hydrolysis of high-concentration GD required a strong alkaline buffer to neutralize the hydrolysis product of hydrofluoric acid (HF) to avoid catalyst poisoning. When H2O2 was used as the oxidant instead of O2, both zirconium-based metal-organic frameworks performed with effective catalytic potency for HD degradation without any special lighting and so was suitable for practical application, whereas the products obtained from HD, such as HDO2 and V-HDO2, still possessed vesicant toxicity. Overall, MOF-808 prepared via a water-phase synthesis performed with effective catalysis for the degradation of high-concentration VX, GD, and HD with t1/2 of < 0.5, 3.1 and 2.2 min, respectively, exhibiting its potential for practical applications.

Role of hair follicles in the pathogenesis of arsenical-induced cutaneous damage

Arsenical vesicants cause skin inflammation, blistering, and pain. The lack of appropriate animal models causes difficulty in defining their molecular pathogenesis. Here, Ptch1+/- /C57BL/6 mice were employed to investigate the pathobiology of the arsenicals lewisite and phenylarsine oxide (PAO). Following lewisite or PAO challenge (24 h), the skin of animals becomes grayish-white, thick, leathery, and wrinkled with increased bi-fold thickness, Draize score, and necrotic patches. In histopathology, infiltrating leukocytes (macrophages and neutrophils), epidermal-dermal separation, edema, apoptotic cells, and disruption of tight and adherens junction proteins can be visualized. PCR arrays and nanoString analyses showed significant increases in cytokines/chemokines and other proinflammatory mediators. As hair follicles (HFs), which provide an immune-privileged environment, may affect immune cell trafficking and consequent inflammatory responses, we compared the pathogenesis of these chemicals in this model to that in Ptch1+/- /SKH-1 hairless mice. Ptch1+/- /SKH-1 mice have rudimentary, whereas Ptch1+/- /C57BL/6 mice have well-developed HFs. Although no significant differences were observed in qualitative inflammatory responses between the two strains, levels of cytokines/chemokines differed. Importantly, the mechanism of inflammation was identical; both reactive oxygen species induction and consequent activation of unfolded protein response signaling were similar. These data reveal that the acute molecular pathogenesis of arsenicals in these two murine models is similar.

Development of BRD4 inhibitors as anti-inflammatory agents and antidotes for arsenicals

Arsenicals belong to the class of chemical warfare agents known as vesicants, which are highly reactive, toxic and cause robust inflammatory response. Cutaneous exposure to arsenicals causes a wide range of systemic organ damage, beginning with cutaneous injuries, and later manifest multi-organ damage and death. Thus, the development of suitable antidotes that can effectively block injury following exposure to these agents is of great importance. Bromodomain 4 (BRD4), a member of the bromodomain and extra terminal domain (BET) family, plays crucial role in regulating transcription of inflammatory, proliferation and cell cycle genes. In this context, the development of potent small molecule inhibitors of BRD4 could serve as potential antidotes for arsenicals. Herein, we describe the synthesis and biological evaluation of a series of compounds.

Mechanistic understanding of the toxic effects of arsenic and warfare arsenicals on human health and environment

Worldwide, more than 200 million people are estimated to be exposed to unsafe levels of arsenic. Chronic exposure to unsafe levels of groundwater arsenic is responsible for multiple human disorders, including dermal, cardiovascular, neurological, pulmonary, renal, and metabolic conditions. Consumption of rice and seafood (where high levels of arsenic are accumulated) is also responsible for human exposure to arsenic. The toxicity of arsenic compounds varies greatly and may depend on their chemical form, solubility, and concentration. Surprisingly, synthetic organoarsenicals are extremely toxic molecules which created interest in their development as chemical warfare agents (CWAs) during World War I (WWI). Among these CWAs, adamsite, Clark I, Clark II, and lewisite are of critical importance, as stockpiles of these agents still exist worldwide. In addition, unused WWII weaponized arsenicals discarded in water bodies or buried in many parts of the world continue to pose a serious threat to the environment and human health. Metabolic inhibition, oxidative stress, genotoxicity, and epigenetic alterations including micro-RNA-dependent regulation are some of the underlying mechanisms of arsenic toxicity. Mechanistic understanding of the toxicity of organoarsenicals is also critical for the development of effective therapeutic interventions. This review provides comprehensive details and a critical assessment of recently published data on various chemical forms of arsenic, their exposure, and implications on human and environmental health.

Dimeric G-Quadruplex: An Efficient Probe for Ultrasensitive Fluorescence Detection of Mustard Compounds

Some mustard compounds (mustards) are highly toxic chemical warfare agents. Some are explored as new anticancer drugs. Therefore, the fast, selective, and sensitive detection of mustards is extremely important for public security and cancer therapy. Mustards mostly target the N7 position on the guanine bases of DNA. The guanine-rich G-quadruplex DNA (G4) has been widely studied in the sensing area, and it was found that dimeric G4 (D-G4) could dramatically light up the fluorescence intensity of thioflavin T (ThT). Based on this, we used for the first time the D-G4 DNA as a selective probe for ultrasensitive fluorescence detection of nitrogen mustard (NM). When NM occupies the N7 on guanine, it can block the formation of the D-G4 structure due to the steric hindrance, and hence, it inhibits the combination of D-G4 with ThT, leading to a sharp decrease of fluorescence intensity. The proposed reaction mechanism is proved using ultraviolet-visible (UV-Vis) spectra, circular dichroism (CD) spectra, and polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. Herein, the concentration of D-G4/ThT used is as low as 50 nM due to its highly fluorescent performance, enabling both high sensitivity and low cost. NM can be detected with a wide linear range from 10 to 2000 nM. The detection limit of NM reaches a surprisingly low concentration of 6 nM, which is 2 or 3 orders of magnitude lower than that of previously developed fluorescence methods for mustards and simulants.

Dynamic Regulation of the Nexus Between Stress Granules, Roquin, and Regnase-1 Underlies the Molecular Pathogenesis of Warfare Vesicants

The use of chemical warfare agents is prohibited but they have been used in recent Middle Eastern conflicts. Their accidental exposure (e.g. arsenical lewisite) is also known and causes extensive painful cutaneous injury. However, their molecular pathogenesis is not understood. Here, we demonstrate that a nexus of stress granules (SGs), integrated stress, and RNA binding proteins (RBPs) Roquin and Reganse-1 play a key role. Lewisite and its prototype phenylarsine oxide (PAO) induce SG assembly in skin keratinocytes soon after exposure, which associate with various RBPs and translation-related proteins. SG disassembly was detected several hours after exposure. The dynamics of SG assembly-disassembly associates with the chemical insult and cell damage. Enhanced Roquin and Regnase-1 expression occurs when Roquin was recruited to SGs and Regnase-1 to the ribosome while in the disassembling SGs their expression is decreased with consequent induction of inflammatory mediators. SG-targeted protein translational control is regulated by the phosphorylation-dependent activation of eukaryotic initiation factors 2α (eIF2α). Treatment with integrated stress response inhibitor (ISRIB), which blocks eIF2α phosphorylation, impacted SG assembly dynamics. Topical application of ISRIB attenuated the inflammation and tissue disruption in PAO-challenged mice. Thus, the dynamic regulation of these pathways provides underpinning to cutaneous injury and identify translational therapeutic approach for these and similar debilitating chemicals.

Advice on assistance and protection provided by the Scientific Advisory Board of the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons: Part 3. On medical care and treatment of injuries from sulfur mustard

Blister agents damage the skin, eyes, mucous membranes and subcutaneous tissues. Other toxic effects may occur after absorption. The response of the Scientific Advisory Board (SAB) of the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW) to a request from the OPCW Director-General in 2013 on the status of medical countermeasures and treatments to blister agents is updated through the incorporation of the latest information. The physical and toxicological properties of sulfur mustard and clinical effects and treatments are summarised. The information should assist medics and emergency responders who may be unfamiliar with the toxidrome of sulfur mustard and its treatment.

Evidence for the systemic diffusion of (2-chloroethyl)-ethyl-sulfide, a sulfur mustard analog, and its deleterious effects in brain

Sulfur mustard, a chemical warfare agent known to be a vesicant of skin, readily diffuses in the blood stream and reaches internal organs. In the present study, we used the analog (2-chloroethyl)-ethyl-sulfide (CEES) to provide novel data on the systemic diffusion of vesicants and on their ability to induce brain damage, which result in neurological disorders. SKH-1 hairless mice were topically exposed to CEES and sacrificed at different time until 14 days after exposure. A plasma metabolomics study showed a strong systemic impact following a self-protection mechanism to alleviate the injury of CEES exposure. This result was confirmed by the quantification of specific biomarkers in plasma. Those were the conjugates of CEES with glutathione (GSH-CEES), cysteine (Cys-CEES) and N-acetyl-cysteine (NAC-CEES), as well as the guanine adduct (N7Gua-CEES). In brain, N7Gua-CEES could be detected both in DNA and in organ extracts. Similarly, GSH-CEES, Cys-CEES and NAC-CEES were present in the extracts until day14. Altogether, these results, based on novel exposure markers, confirm the ability of vesicants to induce internal damage following dermal exposure. The observation of alkylation damage to glutathione and DNA in brain provides an additional mechanism to the neurological insult of SM.

Quinoline-2-thione-based fluorescent probes for selective and sensitive detections of mustard gas and its analogues

Sulfur mustard (SM, also called as mustard gas (HD)) is a persistent and highly toxic gas used as chemical weapon in wars and military conflicts. Moreover, owing to its simple structure and easy synthesis, it is the most likely chemical agent used by terrorists. For this reason, it is vital important to develop a facile, rapid and reliable detection system for SM. In this paper, we have developed four quinoline-2-thiones as fluorescent probes, 2a-2d, for the detection of SM and its analogues, half sulfur mustard (CEES) and a nitrogen mustard NH1. In the presence of KOH, these quinoline-2-thiones deprotonated to quinoline-2-thiophenol anions, which react with SM and its analogues rapidly to form quinoline-2-thiethers with highly efficient fluorescence, giving turn-on fluorescence response. The sensing products with CEES were isolated and fully characterized, thereby, the sensing mechanism was firmly established. The fluorescent probes with 4-trifluoromethyl group, 2b and 2d, exhibit rapid response to SM, CEES and NH1 (within 1 min at 60 °C for CEES and NH1), high sensitivity (limit of detection, 50 nM for SM and 20 nM for NH1) and high selectivity. Furthermore, polymer film test strips were fabricated with probe-embedded poly(ethylene oxide) for the detection of CEES vapor. These test strips displayed a rapid response (<4 min) to gaseous CEES with high sensitivity (0.2 ppm) and high selectivity. These results show that fluorescent probes 2b and 2d have a good application prospect in the field detection of mustard gas.

Advances in sulfur mustard-induced DNA adducts: Characterization and detection

Sulfur mustard (SM) is a blister chemical warfare agent with severe cytotoxicity and genotoxicity. It can extensively alkylate important macromolecules in organisms, such as proteins, DNA, and lipids, and produce a series of metabolites, among which the characteristic ones can be used as biomarkers. The exact toxicological mechanisms of SM remain unclear but mainly involve the DNA lesions induced by alkylation and oxidative stress caused by glutathione depletion. Various methods have been used to analyze DNA damage caused by SM. Among these methods, liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) technology stands out and makes it possible to observe damage in view of biomarkers induced by SM. Sample preparation is critical for detection by LC-MS/MS and mainly includes DNA isolation, adduct hydrolysis, and adduct purification. Moreover, optimization of chromatographic conditions, selection of MS transitions, and quantitative strategies are also essential. SM-DNA adducts are generally considered to be N⁷-HETEG, O⁶-HETEG, N⁷-BisG, and N³-HETEA. This article proposes some other possibilities of SM-DNA adducts for the identification of SM genotoxicity.

Protective role of HO-1 against acute kidney injury caused by cutaneous exposure to arsenicals

Lewisite and many other similar arsenicals are warfare vesicants developed and weaponized for use in World Wars I and II. These chemicals, when exposed to the skin and other epithelial tissues, cause rapid severe inflammation and systemic damage. Here, we show that topically applied arsenicals in a murine model produce significant acute kidney injury (AKI), as determined by an increase in the AKI biomarkers NGAL and KIM-1. An increase in reactive oxygen species and ER stress proteins, such as ATF4 and CHOP, correlated with the induction of these AKI biomarkers. Also, TUNEL staining of CHOP-positive renal tubular cells suggests CHOP mediates apoptosis in these cells. A systemic inflammatory response characterized by a significant elevation in inflammatory mediators, such as IL-6, IFN-α, and COX-2, in the kidney could be the underlying cause of AKI. The mechanism of arsenical-mediated inflammation involves activation of AMPK/Nrf2 signaling pathways, which regulate heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1). Indeed, HO-1 induction with cobalt protoporphyrin (CoPP) treatment in arsenical-treated HEK293 cells afforded cytoprotection by attenuating CHOP-associated apoptosis and cytokine mRNA levels. These results demonstrate that topical exposure to arsenicals causes AKI and that HO-1 activation may serve a protective role in this setting.

Interpol review of toxicology 2016-2019

This review paper covers the forensic-relevant literature in toxicology from 2016 to 2019 as a part of the 19th Interpol International Forensic Science Managers Symposium. The review papers are also available at the Interpol website at: https://www.interpol.int/content/download/14458/file/Interpol%20Review%20.Papers%202019.pdf.

Development of a Series of Fluorescent Probes for the Early Diagnostic Imaging of Sulfur Mustard Poisoning

Sulfur mustard is one of the most harmful chemical warfare agents and can induce skin, eye, and lung injuries. However, it is hard for medical stuff to diagnose sulfur mustard poisoning early because of the incubation period after sulfur mustard exposure. Detecting intact sulfur mustard in vivo might be an effective approach for the early diagnosis of sulfur mustard poisoning. A series of fluorescent probes for intact sulfur mustard detection were developed in this study. All of the developed probes could react with sulfur mustard selectivity. Among these probes, SiNIR-SM exhibited an extremely good response rate and a high off/on contrast. To the best of our knowledge, SiNIR-SM is the first near-infrared fluorescent probe for the sulfur mustard detection. Both SiNIR-SM and OxSM-1 were successfully applied to image sulfur mustard in living cells. Using SiNIR-SM, we found that sulfur mustard accumulates in the mitochondria of living cells. This result could provide a new insight for the treatment of sulfur mustard injuries. We also found that SiNIR-SM is suitable for the early diagnostic imaging of sulfur mustard poisoning in SKH-1 mice via the detection of intact sulfur mustard.