Gallic acid protects rat liver mitochondria ex vivo from bisphenol A induced oxidative stress mediated damages

Dietary gallic acid as an antioxidant: A review of its food industry applications, health benefits, bioavailability, nano-delivery systems, and drug interactions

Gallic acid (GA), a dietary phenolic acid with potent antioxidant activity, is widely distributed in edible plants. GA has been applied in the food industry as an antimicrobial agent, food fresh-keeping agent, oil stabilizer, active food wrap material, and food processing stabilizer. GA is a potential dietary supplement due to its health benefits on various functional disorders associated with oxidative stress, including renal, neurological, hepatic, pulmonary, reproductive, and cardiovascular diseases. GA is rapidly absorbed and metabolized after oral administration, resulting in low bioavailability, which is susceptible to various factors, such as intestinal microbiota, transporters, and metabolism of galloyl derivatives. GA exhibits a tendency to distribute primarily to the kidney, liver, heart, and brain. A total of 37 metabolites of GA has been identified, and decarboxylation and dihydroxylation in phase I metabolism and sulfation, glucuronidation, and methylation in phase Ⅱ metabolism are considered the main in vivo biotransformation pathways of GA. Different types of nanocarriers, such as polymeric nanoparticles, dendrimers, and nanodots, have been successfully developed to enhance the health-promoting function of GA by increasing bioavailability. GA may induce drug interactions with conventional drugs, such as hydroxyurea, linagliptin, and diltiazem, due to its inhibitory effects on metabolic enzymes, including cytochrome P450 3A4 and 2D6, and transporters, including P-glycoprotein, breast cancer resistance protein, and organic anion-transporting polypeptide 1B3. In conclusion, in-depth studies of GA on food industry applications, health benefits, bioavailability, nano-delivery systems, and drug interactions have laid the foundation for its comprehensive application as a food additive and dietary supplement.

Exposure to low dose of Bisphenol A (BPA) intensifies kidney oxidative stress, inflammatory factors expression and modulates Angiotensin II signaling under hypertensive milieu

Humans are constantly exposed to low concentrations of ubiquitous environmental pollutant, Bisphenol A (BPA). Due to the prevalence of hypertension (one of the major risk factors of cardiovascular disease [CVD]) in the population, it is necessary to explore the adverse effect of BPA under hypertension associated pathogenic milieu. The current study exposed the Nω-nitro-l-arginine methyl ester (L-NAME) induced hypertensive Wistar rats to low dose BPA (50 μg/kg) for 30 days period. In tissue samples immunohistochemistry, real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction and enzymatic assays were conducted. Moreover, studies on primary kidney cell culture were employed to explore the impact of low dose of BPA exposure at nanomolar level (20-80 nM range) on renal cells through various fluorescence assays. The observed results illustrate that BPA exposure potentiates/aggravates hypertension induced tissue abnormalities (renal fibrosis), oxidative stress (ROS generation), elevated angiotensin-converting enzyme activity, malfunction of the antioxidant and tricarboxylic acid cycle enzymes, tissue lipid abnormalities and inflammatory factor expression (both messenger RNA and protein level of TNF-α and IL-6). Further, in vitro exposure of nM levels of BPA to primary kidney cells modulates oxidative stress (both superoxide and total ROS), mitochondrial physiology (reduced mitochondrial transmembrane potential-∆ψm) and lipid peroxidation in a dose dependent manner. In addition, angiotensin II induced ROS generation was aggravated further by BPA during coexposure in kidney cells. Therefore, during risk assessment, a precise investigation on BPA exposure in hypertensive (CVD vulnerable) populations is highly suggested.

Bisphenol A (BPA) exposure aggravates hepatic oxidative stress and inflammatory response under hypertensive milieu - Impact of low dose on hepatocytes and influence of MAPK and ER stress pathways

Human exposure to the hazardous chemical, Bisphenol A (BPA), is almost ubiquitous. Due to the prevalence of hypertension (CVD risk factor) in the aged human population, it is necessary to explore its adverse effect in hypertensive subjects. The current study exposed the Nω-nitro-l-arginine methyl ester (L-NAME) induced hypertensive Wistar rats to human exposure relevant low dose of BPA (50 μg/kg) for 30 days period. The liver biochemical parameters, histopathology, immunohistochemistry, gene expression (RT-qPCR), trace elements (ICP-MS), primary rat hepatocytes cell culture and metabolomic (1H NMR) assessments were performed. Results illustrate that BPA exposure potentiates/aggravates hypertension induced tissue abnormalities (hepatic fibrosis), oxidative stress, ACE activity, malfunction of the antioxidant system, lipid abnormalities and inflammatory factor (TNF-α and IL-6) expression. Also, in cells, BPA increased ROS generation, mitochondrial dysfunction and lipid peroxidation without any impact on cytotoxicity and caspase 3 and 9 activation. Notably, BPA exposure modulate lipid metabolism (cholesterol and fatty acid) in primary hepatocytes. Finally, the influence of ERK1/2, p38MAPK, ER stress and oxidative stress during relatively high dose of BPA elicited cytotoxicity was observed. Therefore, a precise hazardous risk investigation of BPA exposure in hypertensive populations is highly recommended.

Protective effects of diclofenac on liver graft preservation

This study aims to evaluate the effect of diclofenac addition to the preservation solution Celsior on liver graft preservation. Liver from Wistar rats were cold flushed in situ, harvested, and then stored in Celsior solution (24 h, 4 °C) supplemented or not with 50 mg/L of diclofenac sodium salt. Reperfusion was performed (120 min, 37 °C) using the isolated perfusion rat liver model. Perfusate samples were collected to evaluate transaminases' activities after cold storage and by the end of reperfusion. To evaluate liver function, bile flow, hepatic clearance of bromosulfophthalein, and vascular resistance were assessed. Diclofenac scavenging property (DPPH assay) as well as oxidative stress parameters (SOD and MPO activities and the concentration of glutathione, conjugated dienes, MDA, and carbonylated proteins) were measured. Transcription factors (PPAR-γ and NF-κB), inflammation (COX-2, IL-6, HMGB-1, and TLR-4), as well as apoptosis markers (Bcl-2 and Bax) were determined by quantitative RT-PCR. Enriching the preservation solution Celsior with diclofenac sodium salt attenuated liver injuries and improved graft function. Oxidative stress, inflammation, and apoptosis were significantly reduced in Celsior + Diclo solution. Also, diclofenac activated PPAR-γ and inhibited NF-κB transcription factors. To decrease graft damage and improve transplant recovery, diclofenac sodium salt may be a promising additive to preservation solution.

Anti-Inflammatory and Vasorelaxant Effects Induced by an Aqueous Aged Black Garlic Extract Supplemented with Vitamins D, C, and B12 on Cardiovascular System

Multiple studies demonstrated biological activities of aged black garlic, including anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and cardioprotective effects. We aimed to investigate the protective effects of an aged black garlic water extract (ABGE) alone or in association with multivitamins consisting of combined Vitamins D, C, and B12, on mouse heart specimens exposed to E. coli lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Moreover, we studied the hydrogen sulphide (H₂S) releasing properties and the membrane hyperpolarization effect of the Formulation composed by ABGE and multivitamins, using Human Aortic Smooth Muscle Cells (HASMCs). ABGE, vitamins D and C, and the Formulation suppressed LPS-induced gene expression of cyclooxygenase (COX)-2, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interleukin (IL)-6, nuclear factor-kB (NF-kB), and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) on mouse heart specimens. The beneficial effects induced by the extract could be related to the pattern of polyphenolic composition, with particular regard to gallic acid and catechin. The Formulation also increased fluorescence values compared to the vehicle, and it caused a significant membrane hyperpolarization of HASMCs compared to ABGE. To conclude, our present findings showed that ABGE, alone and in association with multivitamins, exhibited protective effects on mouse heart. Moreover, the Formulation increased intracellular H₂S formation, further suggesting its potential use on cardiovascular disease.

Low Dose of BPA Induces Liver Injury through Oxidative Stress, Inflammation and Apoptosis in Long-Evans Lactating Rats and Its Perinatal Effect on Female PND6 Offspring

Bisphenol A (BPA) is a phenolic compound used in plastics elaboration for food protection or packaging. BPA-monomers can be released into the food chain, resulting in continuous and ubiquitous low-dose human exposure. This exposure during prenatal development is especially critical and could lead to alterations in ontogeny of tissues increasing the risk of developing diseases in adulthood. The aim was to evaluate whether BPA administration (0.036 mg/kg b.w./day and 3.42 mg/kg b.w./day) to pregnant rats could induce liver injury by generating oxidative stress, inflammation and apoptosis, and whether these effects may be observed in female postnatal day-6 (PND6) offspring. Antioxidant enzymes (CAT, SOD, GR, GPx and GST), glutathione system (GSH/GSSG) and lipid-DNA damage markers (MDA, LPO, NO, 8-OHdG) were measured using colorimetric methods. Inducers of oxidative stress (HO-1d, iNOS, eNOS), inflammation (IL-1β) and apoptosis (AIF, BAX, Bcl-2 and BCL-XL) were measured by qRT-PCR and Western blotting in liver of lactating dams and offspring. Hepatic serum markers and histology were performed. Low dose of BPA caused liver injury in lactating dams and had a perinatal effect in female PND6 offspring by increasing oxidative stress levels, triggering an inflammatory response and apoptosis pathways in the organ responsible for detoxification of this endocrine disruptor.

Morphological, immunohistochemical, and biochemical study on the ameliorative effect of gallic acid against bisphenol A-induced nephrotoxicity in male albino rats

This study aimed to determine the effect of gallic acid (GA) on ameliorating bisphenol A (BPA) nephrotoxicity in male rat kidneys. Forty rats were assigned randomly into two groups: control (ten animals) and BPA (40 mg/kg bwt) (thirty animals), the second group was divided into three subgroups: BPA alone, BPA + G50 (50 mg/kg bwt), and BPA + G200 (200 mg/kg bwt). The biochemical analysis included measurements of the contents of nitric oxide, lipid peroxidation, reactive oxygen species, and cytokines (interleukin-1α and interleukin-6) in the kidney. The antioxidant enzymes catalase and superoxide dismutase were also measured in the kidney. Kidney function was assessed by determining uric acid, urea, and creatinine levels. The morphological investigations included hematoxylin and eosin staining for assessing the general histology and determining the glomerular and corpuscular areas, the tubular cell degeneration mean area, and the mean leukocyte infiltration area. Also, collagen fiber intensity and polysaccharide content were analyzed. Furthermore, immunohistochemical, morphometric, and ultrastructural studies were carried out. The results revealed morphological, immunohistochemical, and biochemical alterations in the kidney. Most of these changes showed a satisfactory improvement of kidney damage when BPA-administered rats were treated with GA at both doses. In conclusion, GA exhibited a strong protective effect against BPA-induced nephrotoxicity.

Protective effect of gallic acid on doxorubicin-induced ovarian toxicity in mouse

The aims of the present study were to evaluate the protective effects of gallic acid against doxorubicin-induced ovarian toxicity in mice, and to verify the possible involvement of PI3K and mTOR signaling pathway members (PTEN, Akt, FOXO3a and rpS6) in the gallic acid protective actions. Mice were pretreated with NaCl (0.15 M, p.o.) (control and doxorubicin groups) or gallic acid (50, 100 or 200 mg/kg body weight, p.o.) once daily, for 5 days, and on the third day of treatment, after 1 h of treatment administration, the mice received saline solution (i.p.) (control group) or doxorubicin (10 mg/kg of body weight, i.p.). Next, the ovaries were harvested for histological (follicular morphology and activation), fluorescence (GSH and mitochondrial activity), and immunohistochemical (PCNA, cleaved caspase-3, TNF-α, p-PTEN, Akt, p-Akt, p-rpS6 and p-FOXO3a) analyses. The results showed that cotreatment with 50 mg/kg gallic acid plus doxorubicin preserved the percentage of normal follicles and cell proliferation, reduced the percentage of cleaved caspase-3 follicles, prevented inflammation, and increased GSH concentrations and mitochondrial activity compared to doxorubicin treatment alone. Furthermore, cotreatment 50 mg/kg gallic acid plus doxorrubicin increased expression of Akt, p-Akt, p-rpS6 and p-FOXO3a compared to the doxorubicin alone. In conclusion, 50 mg/kg gallic acid protects the mouse ovary against doxorubicin-induced damage by improving GSH concentrations and mitochondrial activity and cellular proliferation, inhibiting inflammation and apoptosis, and regulating PI3K and mTOR signaling pathway.

Impact of Bisphenol A on Structure and Function of Mitochondria: A Critical Review

Bisphenol A (BPA) is an industrial chemical used extensively to manufacture polycarbonate plastics and epoxy resins. Because of its estrogen-mimicking properties, BPA acts as an endocrine-disrupting chemical. It has gained attention due to its high chances of daily and constant human exposure, bioaccumulation, and the ability to cause cellular toxicities and diseases at extremely low doses. Several elegant studies have shown that BPA can exert cellular toxicities by interfering with the structure and function of mitochondria, leading to mitochondrial dysfunction. Exposure to BPA results in oxidative stress and alterations in mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), mitochondrial biogenesis, bioenergetics, mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) decline, mitophagy, and apoptosis. Accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in conjunction with oxidative damage may be responsible for causing BPA-mediated cellular toxicity. Thus, several reports have suggested using antioxidant treatment to mitigate the toxicological effects of BPA. The present literature review emphasizes the adverse effects of BPA on mitochondria, with a comprehensive note on the molecular aspects of the structural and functional alterations in mitochondria in response to BPA exposure. The review also confers the possible approaches to alleviate BPA-mediated oxidative damage and the existing knowledge gaps in this emerging area of research.

Linking biochemical and individual-level effects of chlorpyrifos, triphenyl phosphate, and bisphenol A on sea urchin (Paracentrotus lividus) larvae

The effects of three relevant organic pollutants: chlorpyrifos (CPF), a widely used insecticide, triphenyl phosphate (TPHP), employed as flame retardant and as plastic additive, and bisphenol A (BPA), used primarily as plastic additive, on sea urchin (Paracentrotus lividus) larvae, were investigated. Experiments consisted of exposing sea urchin fertilized eggs throughout their development to the 4-arm pluteus larval stage. The antioxidant enzymes glutathione reductase (GR) and catalase (CAT), the phase II detoxification enzyme glutathione S-transferase (GST), and the neurotransmitter catabolism enzyme acetylcholinesterase (AChE) were assessed in combination with responses at the individual level (larval growth). CPF was the most toxic compound with 10 and 50% effective concentrations (EC₁₀ and EC₅₀) values of 60 and 279 μg/l (0.17 and 0.80 μM), followed by TPHP with EC₁₀ and EC₅₀ values of 224 and 1213 μg/l (0.68 and 3.7 μM), and by BPA with EC₁₀ and EC₅₀ values of 885 and 1549 μg/l (3.9 and 6.8 μM). The toxicity of the three compounds was attributed to oxidative stress, to the modulation of the AChE response, and/or to the reduction of the detoxification efficacy. Increasing trends in CAT activity were observed for BPA and, to a lower extent, for CPF. GR activity showed a bell-shaped response in larvae exposed to CPF, whereas BPA caused an increasing trend in GR. GST also displayed a bell-shaped response to CPF exposure and a decreasing trend was observed for TPHP. An inhibition pattern in AChE activity was observed at increasing BPA concentrations. A potential role of the GST in the metabolism of CPF was proposed, but not for TPHP or BPA, and a significant increase of AChE activity associated with oxidative stress was observed in TPHP-exposed larvae. Among the biochemical responses, the GR activity was found to be a reliable biomarker of exposure for sea urchin early-life stages, providing a first sign of damage. These results show that the integration of responses at the biochemical level with fitness-related responses (e.g., growth) may help to improve knowledge about the impact of toxic substances on marine ecosystems.

Gallic acid inhibits celecoxib-induced mitochondrial permeability transition and reduces its toxicity in isolated cardiomyocytes and mitochondria

BACKGROUND

Mitochondria are the main target organelles through which drugs and chemicals exert their toxic effect on cardiomyocytes. The mitochondria-related mechanisms of celecoxib-induced cardiotoxicity have been extensively studied. Accumulated evidence shows natural molecules targeting mitochondria have proven to be effective in preventing cardiotoxicity.

PURPOSE

In the present study, we examined the ameliorative effect of gallic acid (GA) against celecoxib-induced cellular and mitochondrial toxicity in isolated cardiomyocytes and mitochondria.

RESEARCH DESIGN

The isolated cardiomyocytes and mitochondria were divided into various group, namely, control, celecoxib, celecoxib + GA (10, 50, and 100 µM). Several cellular and mitochondrial parameters such as cell viability, lipid peroxidation, succinate dehydrogenase (SDH) activity, reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation, mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) collapse, and mitochondrial swelling were assessed in isolated cardiomyocytes and mitochondria.

RESULTS

Our results showed that administration of celecoxib (16 µg/ml) induced cytotoxicity and mitochondrial dysfunction at 6 h and 1 h, respectively, which is associated with lipid peroxidation intact cardiomyocytes, mitochondrial ROS formation, MMP collapse, and mitochondrial swelling. The cardiomyocytes and mitochondria treated with celecoxib + GA (10, 50, and 100 µM) significantly and dose-dependently restore the altered levels of cellular and mitochondrial parameters.

CONCLUSIONS

We concluded that GA through antioxidant potential and inhibition of mitochondrial permeability transition (MPT) pore exerted ameliorative role in celecoxib-induced toxicity in isolated cardiomyocytes and mitochondria. The data of the current study suggested that GA supplementation may reduce celecoxib-induced cellular and mitochondrial toxicity during exposure and may provide a potential prophylactic and defensive candidate for coxibs-induced mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress, and cardiotoxicity.

Novel Fe(III)-Polybasic acid coordination polymer nanoparticles with targeted retention for photothermal and chemodynamic therapy of tumor

The development of Fe-coordination polymer-based nanoparticles, with safe and high anti-tumor effects, for the treatment of tumor is facing challenges such as limited resources and poor targeting. In this study, we prepared Fe-polyhydroxy coordination polymer nanoparticles (TA-Fe@MNPs), based on tartaric acid (TA)-Fe(III) coordination polymer as the new photothermal agent, mannose (M) as the target, and bovine serum albumin (BSA) and polyethyleneimine (PEI) as the carrier materials, and investigated them for targeting the multifunctional therapy of tumors. The TA-Fe@MNPs synthesized via a simple coordination of Fe³⁺ with TA, bovine serum albumin, and polyethyleneimine under ambient conditions exhibited an appropriate size (~125 nm), electrically neutral surfaces, good biocompatibility, and low normal cell toxicity. The TA-Fe@MNPs are the first to exhibit a remarkable photothermal performance. They also showed a pH-sensitive Fenton-like response that was further enhanced via glutathione response. Interestingly, after a single injection, the TA-Fe@MNPs could be retained at the tumor site for 36 h with an effective photothermal dose, which was attributed to the reduced protein adsorption and slow elimination in tumor cells with the aid of M modification and carrier materials, while that for the TA-Fe@NPs did so for only 2 h. Tumor ablation was demonstrated by in vivo photothermal and chemokinetic therapy using TA-Fe@MNPs, and their safety was evident from the weight changes and blood parameters. These results indicated that the TA-Fe@MNPs, as new photothermal and CDT agents, have the potential to be used in clinical tumor therapy nanoplatforms.

The photosensitiser azure A disrupts mitochondrial bioenergetics through intrinsic and photodynamic effects

Azure A (AA) is a cationic molecule of the class of phenothiazines that has been applied in vitro as a photosensitising agent in photodynamic antimicrobial chemotherapy. It is a di-demethylated analogue of methylene blue (MB), which has been demonstrated to be intrinsically and photodynamically highly active on mitochondrial bioenergetics. However, as far as we know, there are no studies about the photodynamic effects of AA on mammalian mitochondria. Therefore, this investigation aimed to characterise the intrinsic and photodynamic acute effects of AA (0.540 μM) on isolated rat liver mitochondria, isolated hepatocytes, and isolated perfused rat liver. The effects of AA were assessed by evaluating several parameters of mitochondrial bioenergetics, oxidative stress, cell viability, and hepatic energy metabolism. The photodynamic effects of AA were assessed under simulated hypoxic conditions, a suitable way for mimicking the microenvironment of hypoxic solid tumour cells. AA interacted with the mitochondria and, upon photostimulation (10 min of light exposure), produced toxic amounts of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which damaged the organelle, as demonstrated by the high levels of lipid peroxidation and protein carbonylation. The photostimulated AA also depleted the GSH pool, which could compromise the mitochondrial antioxidant defence. Bioenergetically, AA photoinactivated the complexes I, II, and IV of the mitochondrial respiratory chain and the F1FO-ATP synthase complex, sharply inhibiting the oxidative phosphorylation. Upon photostimulation (10 min of light exposure), AA reduced the efficiency of mitochondrial energy transduction and oxidatively damaged lipids in isolated hepatocytes but did not decrease the viability of cells. Despite the useful photobiological properties, AA presented noticeable dark toxicity on mitochondrial bioenergetics, functioning predominantly as an uncoupler of oxidative phosphorylation. This harmful effect of AA was evidenced in isolated hepatocytes, in which AA diminished the cellular ATP content. In this case, the cells exhibited signs of cell viability reduction in the presence of high AA concentrations, but only after a long time of incubation (at least 90 min). The impairments on mitochondrial bioenergetics were also clearly manifested in intact perfused rat liver, in which AA diminished the cellular ATP content and stimulated the oxygen uptake. Consequently, gluconeogenesis and ureogenesis were strongly inhibited, whereas glycogenolysis and glycolysis were stimulated. AA also promoted the release of cytosolic and mitochondrial enzymes into the perfusate concomitantly with inhibition of oxygen consumption. In general, the intrinsic and photodynamic effects of AA were similar to those of MB, but AA caused some distinct effects such as the photoinactivation of the complex IV of the mitochondrial respiratory chain and a diminution of the ATP levels in the liver. It is evident that AA has the potential to be used in mitochondria-targeted photodynamic therapy, even under low oxygen concentrations. However, the fact that AA directly disrupts mitochondrial bioenergetics and affects several hepatic pathways that are linked to ATP metabolism, along with its ability to perturb cellular membranes and its little potential to reduce cell viability, could result in significant adverse effects especially in long-term treatments.

Gallic acid promotes the in vitro development of sheep secondary isolated follicles involving the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase pathway

This study was conducted to evaluate the effect of addition of gallic acid as the single antioxidant to the base medium for in vitro culture of sheep secondary follicles and if the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) pathway is involved in the action of gallic acid. Secondary follicles were isolated and cultured for 12 days in α-MEM supplemented with bovine serum albumin (BSA), insulin, glutamine, hypoxanthine, transferrin, selenium, and ascorbic acid (control medium: α-MEM⁺) or in α-MEM supplemented with BSA, insulin, glutamine, hypoxanthine and different concentrations of gallic acid (25, 50 or 100 μM), thus replacing transferrin, selenium and ascorbic acid in the medium. Follicle morphology, glutathione (GSH), and mitochondrial activity, and meiotic resumption were evaluated. Furthermore, inhibition of PI3K pathway was performed by pretreatment with LY294002. After 12 days of culture, the follicle survival in a medium containing 100 μM gallic acid was similar (P > 0.05) to α-MEM⁺ and greater (P < 0.05) compared with other gallic acid concentrations. Antrum formation, follicle diameter, GSH, and mitochondrial activity, and meiotic resumption, however, were greater (P < 0.05) when 100 μM gallic acid was included in the α-MEM⁺ culture medium compared with the control medium. Furthermore, LY294002 inhibited (P < 0.05) follicle survival, development, and meiotic resumption stimulated by 100 μM gallic acid. In conclusion, concentration of 100 μM of gallic acid can be a substitute for transferrin, selenium, and ascorbic acid in the base medium during in vitro culture of sheep secondary follicles, inducing follicle development likely through the PI3K pathway.

Protective effect of metformin on BPA-induced liver toxicity in rats through upregulation of cystathionine β synthase and cystathionine γ lyase expression

Human exposure to bisphenol A (BPA) is unavoidable in daily life. Recently, research has showen that BPA could induce oxidative imbalance, thereby causing reproductive toxicity and liver dysfunction. Accumulated evidence has demonstrated that metformin possesses strong anti-oxidative properties. This study aimed to study the mechanism underlying the hepatic-protective effect of metformin on liver injury induced by BPA in rats via the UPLC-MS/MS metabolomics approach. Forty-two male rats were randomly divided into six groups (n = 7), namely the saline group (control), the corn oil group (vehicle), the metformin group (Met), the bisphenol A group (BPA), the bisphenol A and metformin group (BPA + Met), and the bisphenol A and diammonium glycyrrhizinate (positive control) group (BPA + DG). Serum was collected for biochemical analysis and metabolomics, and liver tissue was collected for histopathology and metabolomics in each group. We found that metformin could significantly reduce the levels of liver function enzymes (ALT, AST and GGT) and ameliorate inflammatory cell infiltration and hepatocyte necrosis induced by BPA. On the other hand, metformin could significantly enhance the total antioxidant capacity in BPA rats. Notably, metabolomics data indicated that the principal altered metabolic pathways based on the 26 differential metabolites in liver tissue, and 21 in serum among vehicle, BPA and BPA + Met groups, respectively, including cysteine and methionine metabolism, glutathione metabolism, and arginine biosynthesis and purine metabolism. Additionally, metformin significantly increased cystathionine β synthase (CBS) and cystathionine γ lyase (CSE), thus reducing serum levels of homocysteine and increasing hepatic levels of cysteine and glutathione in BPA-treated rats. Overall, this study's results provided new insights into the role and mechanism of metformin in BPA-induced liver injury in rats.

Anti-Inflammatory and Neuromodulatory Effects Induced by Tanacetum parthenium Water Extract: Results from In Silico, In Vitro and Ex Vivo Studies

Tanacetum parthenium (feverfew) has traditionally been employed as a phytotherapeutic remedy in the treatment of migraine. In this study, a commercial T. parthenium water extract was investigated to explore its anti-inflammatory and neuromodulatory effects. Isolated mouse cortexes were exposed to a K⁺ 60 mM Krebs-Ringer buffer and treated with T. parthenium water extract. The prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂) level, brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), interleukin-10 (IL-10), and IL-1β gene expression were evaluated in the cortex. The effects on dopamine (DA) release and dopamine transporter (DAT) gene expression were assayed in hypothalamic HypoE22 cells. A bioinformatics analysis was conducted to further investigate the mechanism of action. The extract was effective in reducing cortex PGE₂ release and IL-1β gene expression. In the same experimental system, IL-10 and BDNF gene expressions increased, and in HypoE22 cells, the extract decreased the extracellular dopamine level and increased the DAT gene expression due to the direct interaction of parthenolide with the DAT. Overall, the present findings highlight the efficacy of T. parthenium water extract in controlling the inflammatory pathways that occur during cortical-spreading depression. Additionally, the inhibition of the hypothalamic DA release observed in this study further supports the role of dopaminergic pathways as key targets for novel pharmacological approaches in the management of migraine attacks.

Phenolic hydroxylases

Many flavin-dependent phenolic hydroxylases (monooxygenases) have been extensively investigated. Their crystal structures and reaction mechanisms are well understood. These enzymes belong to groups A and D of the flavin-dependent monooxygenases and can be classified as single-component and two-component flavin-dependent monooxygenases. The insertion of molecular oxygen into the substrates catalyzed by these enzymes is beneficial for modifying the biological properties of phenolic compounds and their derivatives. This chapter provides an in-depth discussion of the structural features of single-component and two-component flavin-dependent phenolic hydroxylases. The reaction mechanisms of selected enzymes, including 3-hydroxy-benzoate 4-hydroxylase (PHBH) and 3-hydroxy-benzoate 6-hydroxylase as representatives of single-component enzymes and 3-hydroxyphenylacetate 4-hydroxylase (HPAH) as a representative of two-component enzymes, are discussed in detail. This chapter comprises the following four main parts: general reaction, structures, reaction mechanisms, and enzyme engineering for biocatalytic applications. Enzymes belonging to the same group catalyze similar reactions but have different unique structural features to control their reactivity to substrates and the formation and stabilization of C4a-hydroperoxyflavin. Protein engineering has been employed to improve the ability to use these enzymes to synthesize valuable compounds. A thorough understanding of the structural and mechanistic features controlling enzyme reactivity is useful for enzyme redesign and enzyme engineering for future biocatalytic applications.

Hepatoprotective effect of Moringa oleifera leaves aquatic extract against lead acetate-induced liver injury in male Wistar rats

Current research was performed to explore the hepatoprotective potential of Moringa oleifera leaves extract on lead acetate-induced hepatic injury. Twenty-four male Wistar rats were divided equally into 4 groups. The first group was control, while the second, third, and fourth groups were given 200 mg/kg aqueous Moringa extract only, 100 mg/kg lead only, and 100 mg/kg lead plus 200 mg/kg aqueous Moringa leaves extract, respectively, via oral gavage for 4 weeks. Weight gain and feed efficiency ratio were recorded. Serum lipid profiles, liver enzyme activities, and proteins beside hepatic superoxide dismutase activity, reduced glutathione, tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), and deoxyribonucleic acid fragmentation were assessed. Liver histopathological examination and nuclear factor kappa B (NF-kB) immunohistochemistry were performed. Administration of lead lowered (P < 0.05) weight gain, feed efficiency ratio, and perturbed lipid profile than control. Lead increased liver enzyme activities and TNF-α, while reduced serum proteins and hepatic antioxidant markers compared to control. Lead aggravated hepatic DNA fragmentation beside the presence of histopathological lesions. Co-administration of aqueous Moringa extract with lead significantly alleviated lead-induced adverse effects. The administration of aqueous Moringa extract with its antioxidant significantly restored the lead perturbations through reduction of oxidative stress-induced DNA damage via amelioration of NF-kB and TNF-α which kept hepatocyte integrity and reduced serum hepatic enzyme activities.

Resveratrol, curcumin and gallic acid attenuate glyoxal-induced damage to rat renal cells

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RES, CUR and GA protected renal cells from GO–induced cells death.

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RES, CUR and GA reduced formation of ROS.

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RES, CUR and GA diminished lipid peroxidation products.

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RES, CUR and GA repressed GO-induced mitochondrial membrane potential collapse.

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RES, CUR and GA decreased lysosomal membrane leakage in GO-treated cells.

Glyoxal (GO), a by-product of glucose auto-oxidation, is involved in the glycation of proteins/ lipids and formation of advanced glycation (AGE) and lipoxidation (ALE) end products. AGE/ALE were shown to contribute to diabetic complications development/progression such as nephropathy. Diabetic nephropathy progression has an oxidative nature. Given the antioxidant effects of polyphenols, potential protective effects of resveratrol, curcumin and gallic acid, in rat renal cells treated with GO, were evaluated in the present work. According to our results, incubation of GO with the cells reduced their viability and led to membrane lysis, reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation, lipid peroxidation, mitochondrial membrane potential collapse, and lysosomal membrane leakage. These findings were prevented by pre-treatment with resveratrol, curcumin and gallic acid. Mitochondrial and lysosomal toxic interactions appear to worsen oxidative stress/cytotoxicity produced by GO. Resveratrol, curcumin and gallic acid inhibited ROS formation and attenuated GO-induced renal cell death.

Evaluation of the protective effects of quercetin and gallic acid against oxidative toxicity in rat's kidney and HEK-293 cells

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Gallic acid has better antioxidant protective effect than quercetin in vivo.

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Quercetin has better antioxidant protective effect than gallic acid in vitro.

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The antioxidant effect of quercetin was at the least concentration tested.

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The antioxidant effect of gallic acid was at a higher concentrated tested.

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The in vivo dosage for the antioxidant effects of quercetin in the kidney is low.

Quercetin and gallic acid are phytochemicals with interesting pharmacological properties. We herein investigated the protective effect of quercetin (QUE) in comparison with gallic acid (GAL) against exogenously-induced oxidative damage in rats’ kidney and human embryonic kidney (HEK-293) cell lines. Adult Wistar rats were treated with QUE and GAL (50 mg/kg) separately or in combination with di-n-butylphthalate (DnBP) for 14 days; and HEK-293 cells were treated with different concentrations of GAL (25−294 μM) or QUE (2−17 μM or 28−165.43 μM) singly or in combination with H₂O₂ (200 μM). After treatment, the kidney and cell extracts were processed for biochemical analysis and histopathology. We found that GAL but not QUE prevented DnBP-induced increase in lipid peroxidation (2.603 ± 0.25 vs. 3.65 ± 0.21 μmol/mL). Treatment with QUE but not GAL was associated with increased plasma creatinine (729.09 ± 55.68 vs. 344.25 ± 50.78 μmol/l) and tissue malondialdehyde (3.72 ± 0.62 vs. 1.67 ± 0.47 μmol/mL) concentrations, along with histo-pathological changes such as glomerular and tubular degenerations. However, QUE exhibited wider therapeutic concentration ranges than GAL at which it inhibits lipid peroxidation in HEK-293 cells, and was found to inhibit H₂O₂-induced lipid peroxidation even at the lowest concentration (2 μM) that was tested (0.607 ± 0.074 vs. 0.927 ± 0.106 μmol/l). These suggest that the in vivo dosages required for the antioxidant protective effects of QUE in renal tissues are low.

Maintenance of mitochondrial function by astaxanthin protects against bisphenol A-induced kidney toxicity in rats

Bisphenol A (BPA), a global environmental pollutant, has been reported to have the potential to induced organs toxicity. This study explored the potential benefits of astaxanthin (ATX), a natural antioxidant, against BPA toxicity in the kidney, and explored whether mitochondria are involved in this condition. Male Wistar rats were fed with a vehicle, BPA, BPA plus ATX, ATX and were evaluated after five weeks. ATX treatment significantly reversed BPA-induced changes in body weight, kidney/body weight, and renal function related markers. When treated simultaneously with ATX, the imbalance of the oxidative-antioxidant status caused by BPA was also alleviated. The high expression of BPA-induced pro-inflammatory cytokines were inhibited by ATX treatment. ATX treatment also lessened the effects of BPA-induced caspase-3, -8, -9 and -10 gene expression and enzyme activity. The benefits of ATX were associated with enhanced mitochondrial function, which led to increased mitochondrial-encoded gene expression, mitochondrial copy number, and increased mitochondrial respiratory chain complex enzyme activity. Our results demonstrate the efficacy of ATX in protecting BPA-induced kidney damage, in part by regulating oxidative imbalance and improving mitochondrial function. Collectively, these findings provide a new perspective for the rational use of ATX in the treatment of BPA-induced kidney disease.

Multiple pharmacological and toxicological investigations on Tanacetum parthenium and Salix alba extracts: Focus on potential application as anti-migraine agents

Migraine is one of the most common neurological disorder, which has long been related to brain serotonin (5-HT) depletion and neuro-inflammation. Despite many treatment options are available, the frequent occurrence of unacceptable adverse effects further supports the research toward nutraceuticals and herbal preparations, among which Tanacetum parthenium and Salix alba showed promising anti-inflammatory and neuro-modulatory activities. The impact of extract treatment on astrocyte viability, spontaneous migration and apoptosis was evaluated. Anti-inflammatory/anti-oxidant effects were investigated on isolated rat cortexes exposed to a neurotoxic stimulus. The lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) release, nitrite levels and 5-HT turnover were evaluated, as well. A proteomic analysis was focused on specific neuronal proteins and a fingerprint analysis was carried out on selected phenolic compounds. Both extracts appeared able to exert in vitro anti-oxidant and anti-apoptotic effects. S. alba and T. parthenium extracts reduced LDH release, nitrite levels and 5-HT turnover induced by neurotoxic stimulus. The downregulation of selected proteins suggest a neurotoxicity, which could be ascribed to an elevated content of gallic acid in both S. alba and T. parthenium extracts. Concluding, both extracts exert neuroprotective effects, although the downregulation of key proteins involved in neuron physiology suggest caution in their use as food supplements.