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Li YJ, Yu Y, Liu X, Zhang XS, Su YH. The Arabidopsis MATERNAL EFFECT EMBRYO ARREST45 protein modulates maternal auxin biosynthesis and controls seed size by inducing AINTEGUMENTA. THE PLANT CELL 2021; 33:1907-1926. [PMID: 33730150 PMCID: PMC8290293 DOI: 10.1093/plcell/koab084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2020] [Accepted: 03/10/2021] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Seed size is a major factor determining crop yields that is controlled through the coordinated development of maternal and zygotic tissues. Here, we identified Arabidopsis MATERNAL EFFECT EMBRYO ARREST45 (MEE45) as a B3 transcription factor that controls cell proliferation and maternally regulates seed size through its transcriptional activation of AINTEGUMENTA (ANT) and its downstream control of auxin biosynthesis in the ovule integument. After characterizing reduced seed and organ size phenotypes in mee45 mutants and finding that overexpression of MEE45 causes oversized seeds, we discovered that the MEE45 protein can bind to the promoter region of the ANT locus and positively regulate its transcription. ANT in-turn activates the expression of auxin biosynthetic genes (e.g. YUCCA4) in the ovule integument. Our results thus illustrate mechanisms underlying maternal tissue-mediated regulation of seed size and suggest that MEE45 and its downstream components can be harnessed to develop higher-yielding crop varieties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Ju Li
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Biology, College of Life Sciences, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai’an, 271018, Shandong, China
| | - Yang Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Biology, College of Life Sciences, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai’an, 271018, Shandong, China
| | - Xiuying Liu
- Novogene Bioinformatics Institute, Beijing, 100020, China
| | - Xian Sheng Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Biology, College of Life Sciences, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai’an, 271018, Shandong, China
- Authors for Correspondence: ;
| | - Ying Hua Su
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Biology, College of Life Sciences, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai’an, 271018, Shandong, China
- Authors for Correspondence: ;
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Vissenberg K. Plant biology: Positive feedback between auxin and cell wall mechanics during apical hook formation. Curr Biol 2021; 31:R306-R309. [PMID: 33756147 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2021.01.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Apical hook formation protects fragile tissues of the hypocotyl in soil during seedling emergence. A new study reveals a positive feedback loop between asymmetric distribution of the hormone auxin and the cell wall pectin conformations underpinning cell elongation and tissue bending.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kris Vissenberg
- Integrated Molecular Plant Physiology Research, Department of Biology, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium; Plant Biochemistry and Biotechnology Lab, Department of Agriculture, Hellenic Mediterranean University, Stavromenos PC 71410, Heraklion, Crete, Greece.
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Rovira A, Sentandreu M, Nagatani A, Leivar P, Monte E. The Sequential Action of MIDA9/PP2C.D1, PP2C.D2, and PP2C.D5 Is Necessary to Form and Maintain the Hook After Germination in the Dark. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2021; 12:636098. [PMID: 33767720 PMCID: PMC7985339 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2021.636098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2020] [Accepted: 02/05/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
During seedling etiolation after germination in the dark, seedlings have closed cotyledons and form an apical hook to protect the meristem as they break through the soil to reach the surface. Once in contact with light, the hook opens and cotyledons are oriented upward and separate. Hook development in the dark after seedling emergence from the seed follows three distinctly timed and sequential phases: formation, maintenance, and eventual opening. We previously identified MISREGULATED IN DARK9 (MIDA9) as a phytochrome interacting factor (PIF)-repressed gene in the dark necessary for hook development during etiolated growth. MIDA9 encodes the type 2C phosphatase PP2C.D1, and pp2c-d1/mida9 mutants exhibit open hooks in the dark. Recent evidence has described that PP2C.D1 and other PP2C.D members negatively regulate SMALL AUXIN UP RNA (SAUR)-mediated cell elongation. However, the fundamental question of the timing of PP2C.D1 action (and possibly other members of the PP2C.D family) during hook development remains to be addressed. Here, we show that PP2C.D1 is required immediately after germination to form the hook. pp2c.d1/mida9 shows reduced cell expansion in the outer layer of the hook and, therefore, does not establish the differential cell growth necessary for hook formation, indicating that PP2C.D1 is necessary to promote cell elongation during this early stage. Additionally, genetic analyses of single and high order mutants in PP2C.D1, PP2C.D2, and PP2C.D5 demonstrate that the three PP2C.Ds act collectively and sequentially during etiolation: whereas PP2C.D1 dominates hook formation, PP2C.D2 is necessary during the maintenance phase, and PP2C.D5 acts to prevent opening during the third phase together with PP2C.D1 and PP2C.D2. Finally, we uncover a possible connection of PP2C.D1 levels with ethylene physiology, which could help optimize hook formation during post-germinative growth in the dark.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arnau Rovira
- Plant Development and Signal Transduction Program, Center for Research in Agricultural Genomics (CRAG) CSIC-IRTA-UAB-UB, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Maria Sentandreu
- Plant Development and Signal Transduction Program, Center for Research in Agricultural Genomics (CRAG) CSIC-IRTA-UAB-UB, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Akira Nagatani
- Department of Botany, Graduate School of Science, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Pablo Leivar
- Plant Development and Signal Transduction Program, Center for Research in Agricultural Genomics (CRAG) CSIC-IRTA-UAB-UB, Barcelona, Spain
- Laboratory of Biochemistry, Institut Químic de Sarrià, Universitat Ramon Llull, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Elena Monte
- Plant Development and Signal Transduction Program, Center for Research in Agricultural Genomics (CRAG) CSIC-IRTA-UAB-UB, Barcelona, Spain
- Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Barcelona, Spain
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Iqbal Z, Iqbal MS, Hashem A, Abd_Allah EF, Ansari MI. Plant Defense Responses to Biotic Stress and Its Interplay With Fluctuating Dark/Light Conditions. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2021; 12:631810. [PMID: 33763093 PMCID: PMC7982811 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2021.631810] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2020] [Accepted: 02/08/2021] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Plants are subjected to a plethora of environmental cues that cause extreme losses to crop productivity. Due to fluctuating environmental conditions, plants encounter difficulties in attaining full genetic potential for growth and reproduction. One such environmental condition is the recurrent attack on plants by herbivores and microbial pathogens. To surmount such attacks, plants have developed a complex array of defense mechanisms. The defense mechanism can be either preformed, where toxic secondary metabolites are stored; or can be inducible, where defense is activated upon detection of an attack. Plants sense biotic stress conditions, activate the regulatory or transcriptional machinery, and eventually generate an appropriate response. Plant defense against pathogen attack is well understood, but the interplay and impact of different signals to generate defense responses against biotic stress still remain elusive. The impact of light and dark signals on biotic stress response is one such area to comprehend. Light and dark alterations not only regulate defense mechanisms impacting plant development and biochemistry but also bestow resistance against invading pathogens. The interaction between plant defense and dark/light environment activates a signaling cascade. This signaling cascade acts as a connecting link between perception of biotic stress, dark/light environment, and generation of an appropriate physiological or biochemical response. The present review highlights molecular responses arising from dark/light fluctuations vis-à-vis elicitation of defense mechanisms in plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zahra Iqbal
- Molecular Crop Research Unit, Department of Biochemistry, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | | | - Abeer Hashem
- Botany and Microbiology Department, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
- Mycology and Plant Disease Survey Department, Plant Pathology Research Institute, ARC, Giza, Egypt
| | - Elsayed Fathi Abd_Allah
- Plant Production Department, College of Food and Agricultural Sciences, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
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Heinrich MK, von Mammen S, Hofstadler DN, Wahby M, Zahadat P, Skrzypczak T, Soorati MD, Krela R, Kwiatkowski W, Schmickl T, Ayres P, Stoy K, Hamann H. Constructing living buildings: a review of relevant technologies for a novel application of biohybrid robotics. J R Soc Interface 2019; 16:20190238. [PMID: 31362616 PMCID: PMC6685033 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2019.0238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2019] [Accepted: 07/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Biohybrid robotics takes an engineering approach to the expansion and exploitation of biological behaviours for application to automated tasks. Here, we identify the construction of living buildings and infrastructure as a high-potential application domain for biohybrid robotics, and review technological advances relevant to its future development. Construction, civil infrastructure maintenance and building occupancy in the last decades have comprised a major portion of economic production, energy consumption and carbon emissions. Integrating biological organisms into automated construction tasks and permanent building components therefore has high potential for impact. Live materials can provide several advantages over standard synthetic construction materials, including self-repair of damage, increase rather than degradation of structural performance over time, resilience to corrosive environments, support of biodiversity, and mitigation of urban heat islands. Here, we review relevant technologies, which are currently disparate. They span robotics, self-organizing systems, artificial life, construction automation, structural engineering, architecture, bioengineering, biomaterials, and molecular and cellular biology. In these disciplines, developments relevant to biohybrid construction and living buildings are in the early stages, and typically are not exchanged between disciplines. We, therefore, consider this review useful to the future development of biohybrid engineering for this highly interdisciplinary application.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mary Katherine Heinrich
- Institute of Computer Engineering, University of Lübeck, Lübeck, Germany
- School of Architecture, Centre for IT and Architecture, Royal Danish Academy, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Sebastian von Mammen
- Human–Computer Interaction, Julius Maximilian University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | | | - Mostafa Wahby
- Institute of Computer Engineering, University of Lübeck, Lübeck, Germany
| | - Payam Zahadat
- Institute of Biology, Artificial Life Lab, University of Graz, Graz, Austria
- Department of Computer Science, IT University of Copenhagen, Kobenhavn, Denmark
| | - Tomasz Skrzypczak
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Adam Mickiewicz University, Poznan, Poland
| | | | - Rafał Krela
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Adam Mickiewicz University, Poznan, Poland
| | - Wojciech Kwiatkowski
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Adam Mickiewicz University, Poznan, Poland
| | - Thomas Schmickl
- Institute of Biology, Artificial Life Lab, University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Phil Ayres
- School of Architecture, Centre for IT and Architecture, Royal Danish Academy, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Kasper Stoy
- Department of Computer Science, IT University of Copenhagen, Kobenhavn, Denmark
| | - Heiko Hamann
- Institute of Computer Engineering, University of Lübeck, Lübeck, Germany
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6
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Grewal RK, Saraf S, Deb A, Kundu S. Differentially Expressed MicroRNAs Link Cellular Physiology to Phenotypic Changes in Rice Under Stress Conditions. PLANT & CELL PHYSIOLOGY 2018; 59:2143-2154. [PMID: 30010993 DOI: 10.1093/pcp/pcy136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2017] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Plant microRNAs (miRNAs) and their target genes have important functional roles in nutrition deficiency and stress response. However, the underlying mechanisms relating relative expression of miRNAs and target mRNAs to morphological adjustments are not well defined. By combining miRNA expression profiles, corresponding target genes and transcription factors that bind to computationally identified over-represented cis-regulatory elements (CREs) common in miRNAs and target gene promoters, we implement a strategy that identifies a set of differentially expressed regulatory interactions which, in turn, relate underlying cellular mechanisms to some of the phenotypic changes observed. Integration of experimentally reported individual interactions with identified regulatory interactions explains how (i) during mineral deficiency osa-miR167 inhibits shoot growth but activates adventitious root growth by influencing free auxin content; (ii) during sulfur deficiency osa-miR394 is involved in adventitious root growth inhibition, sulfur and iron homeostasis, and auxin-mediated regulation of sulfur homeostasis; (iii) osa-miR399 contributes to cross-talk between cytokinin and phosphorus deficiency signaling; and (iv) a feed-forward loop involving the osa-miR166, trihelix and HD-ZIP III transcription factors may regulate leaf senescence during drought. This strategy not only identifies various regulatory interactions connecting phenotypic changes with cellular or molecular events triggered by stress, but also provides a framework to deepen our understanding of stress cellular physiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rumdeep K Grewal
- Department of Biophysics, Molecular Biology and Bioinformatics, University of Calcutta, Kolkata, India
- Department of Botany, Bhairab Ganguly College, Kolkata, India
| | - Shradha Saraf
- Department of Biophysics, Molecular Biology and Bioinformatics, University of Calcutta, Kolkata, India
| | - Arindam Deb
- Department of Biophysics, Molecular Biology and Bioinformatics, University of Calcutta, Kolkata, India
| | - Sudip Kundu
- Department of Biophysics, Molecular Biology and Bioinformatics, University of Calcutta, Kolkata, India
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7
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van Loon LC. The Intelligent Behavior of Plants. TRENDS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2016; 21:286-294. [PMID: 26690331 DOI: 10.1016/j.tplants.2015.11.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2015] [Revised: 10/08/2015] [Accepted: 11/11/2015] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Plants are as adept as animals and humans in reacting effectively to their ever-changing environment. Of necessity, their sessile nature requires specific adaptations, but their cells possess a network-type communication system with emerging properties at the level of the organ or entire plant. The specific adjustments in growth and development of plants can be taken to represent behavior. Their ability to learn from experience and to memorize previous experiences in order to optimize fitness allows effective acclimation to environmental stresses and can be considered a form of intelligence. Intelligent behavior is exemplified by the exceptional versatility of plants to deal with abiotic stresses as well as microbial and insect attack by balancing appropriate defensive reactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leendert C van Loon
- Plant-Microbe Interactions, Department of Biology, Utrecht University, Padualaan 8, 3584 CH Utrecht, The Netherlands.
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8
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Orozco-Arroyo G, Paolo D, Ezquer I, Colombo L. Networks controlling seed size in Arabidopsis. PLANT REPRODUCTION 2015; 28:17-32. [PMID: 25656951 DOI: 10.1007/s00497-015-0255-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2014] [Accepted: 01/16/2015] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
Key message: Overview of seed size control. Human and livestock nutrition is largely based on calories derived from seeds, in particular cereals and legumes. Unveiling the control of seed size is therefore of remarkable importance in the frame of developing new strategies for crop improvement. The networks controlling the development of the seed coat, the endosperm and the embryo, as well as their interplay, have been described in Arabidopsis thaliana. In this review, we provide a comprehensive description of the current knowledge regarding the molecular mechanisms controlling seed size in Arabidopsis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gregorio Orozco-Arroyo
- Dipartimento di BioScienze, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via Giovanni Celoria 26, 20133, Milan, Italy
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9
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Mazzella MA, Casal JJ, Muschietti JP, Fox AR. Hormonal networks involved in apical hook development in darkness and their response to light. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2014; 5:52. [PMID: 24616725 PMCID: PMC3935338 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2014.00052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2013] [Accepted: 02/04/2014] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
In darkness, the dicot seedlings produce an apical hook as result of differential cell division and extension at opposite sides of the hypocotyl. This hook protects the apical meristem from mechanical damage during seedling emergence from the soil. In darkness, gibberellins act via the DELLA-PIF (PHYTOCHROME INTERACTING FACTORs) pathway, and ethylene acts via the EIN3/EIL1 (ETHYLENE INSENSITIVE 3/EIN3 like 1)-HLS1 (HOOKLESS 1) pathway to control the asymmetric accumulation of auxin required for apical hook formation and maintenance. These core pathways form a network with multiple points of connection. Light perception by phytochromes and cryptochromes reduces the activity of PIFs and (COP1) CONSTITUTIVE PHOTOMORPHOGENIC 1-both required for hook formation in darkness-, lowers the levels of gibberellins, and triggers hook opening as a component of the switch between heterotrophic and photoautotrophic development. Apical hook opening is thus a suitable model to study the convergence of endogenous and exogenous signals on the control of cell division and cell growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria A. Mazzella
- Instituto de Investigaciones en Ingeniería Genética y Biología Molecular, “Dr. Héctor Torres” (INGEBI-CONICET)Buenos Aires, Argentina
- *Correspondence: Maria A. Mazzella, INGEBI, Instituto de Investigaciones en Ingeniería Genética y Biología Molecular, “Dr. Héctor Torres”, 2490 Vuelta de Obligado, Buenos Aires, 1428, Argentina e-mail:
| | - Jorge J. Casal
- Facultad de Agronomía, Instituto de Investigaciones Fisiológicas y Ecológicas Vinculadas a la Agricultura, Universidad de Buenos Aires and CONICETBuenos Aires, Argentina
- Fundación Instituto Leloir, Instituto de Investigaciones Bioquímicas de Buenos Aires-CONICETBuenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Jorge P. Muschietti
- Instituto de Investigaciones en Ingeniería Genética y Biología Molecular, “Dr. Héctor Torres” (INGEBI-CONICET)Buenos Aires, Argentina
- Departamento de Biodiversidad y Biología Experimental, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos AiresBuenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Ana R. Fox
- Instituto de Investigaciones en Ingeniería Genética y Biología Molecular, “Dr. Héctor Torres” (INGEBI-CONICET)Buenos Aires, Argentina
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Song YH, Lee I, Lee SY, Imaizumi T, Hong JC. CONSTANS and ASYMMETRIC LEAVES 1 complex is involved in the induction of FLOWERING LOCUS T in photoperiodic flowering in Arabidopsis. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2012; 69:332-42. [PMID: 21950734 PMCID: PMC3253897 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-313x.2011.04793.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Plants monitor changes in day length to coordinate flowering with favorable seasons to increase their fitness. The day-length specific induction of FLOWERING LOCUS T (FT) regulated by CONSTANS (CO) is the crucial aspect of photoperiodic flowering in Arabidopsis thaliana. Recent studies have elucidated some mechanisms of CO-dependent FT induction. Here, we demonstrate another mechanism of CO-dependent FT regulation. Our results indicate that CO protein partially regulates FT transcription by forming a complex with ASYMMETRIC LEAVES 1 (AS1) protein, which regulates leaf development partly by controlling gibberellin (GA) levels. We identified AS1 as a CO-interacting protein in yeast and verified their interaction in vitro and in planta. We also showed that the temporal and spatial expression pattern of AS1 overlapped with that of CO. In addition, as1 mutants showed GA-independent delayed flowering under different light/dark conditions. FT expression levels in the as1 mutants and the SUC2:CO-HA/as1 line under long-day and 12-h light/12-h dark conditions were reduced compared with wild-type plants and the SUC2:HA-CO line, respectively. Moreover, AS1 bound directly to the specific regions of the FT promoter in vivo. These results indicate that CO forms a functional complex with AS1 to regulate FT expression and that AS1 plays different roles in two regulatory pathways, both of which concomitantly regulate the precise timing of flowering.
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Affiliation(s)
- Young Hun Song
- Department of Biochemistry, Division of Applied Life Science (BK21 program), Graduate School of Gyeongsang National University, Jinju, 660-701, Korea
- Department of Biology, University of Washington, 24 Kincaid Hall, Box 351800, Seattle, WA, 98195-1800, USA
| | - Ilha Lee
- Department of Biochemistry, Division of Applied Life Science (BK21 program), Graduate School of Gyeongsang National University, Jinju, 660-701, Korea
| | - Sang Yeol Lee
- Department of Biochemistry, Division of Applied Life Science (BK21 program), Graduate School of Gyeongsang National University, Jinju, 660-701, Korea
| | - Takato Imaizumi
- Department of Biology, University of Washington, 24 Kincaid Hall, Box 351800, Seattle, WA, 98195-1800, USA
- For Correspondence: Jong Chan Hong; Tel) +82-55-772-1353, Fax) +82-55-759-9363, , Takato Imaizumi; Tel) +1-206-543-8709, Fax) +1-206-616-2011,
| | - Jong Chan Hong
- Department of Biochemistry, Division of Applied Life Science (BK21 program), Graduate School of Gyeongsang National University, Jinju, 660-701, Korea
- Division of Plant Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, 65211 USA
- For Correspondence: Jong Chan Hong; Tel) +82-55-772-1353, Fax) +82-55-759-9363, , Takato Imaizumi; Tel) +1-206-543-8709, Fax) +1-206-616-2011,
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11
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Ruberti I, Sessa G, Ciolfi A, Possenti M, Carabelli M, Morelli G. Plant adaptation to dynamically changing environment: the shade avoidance response. Biotechnol Adv 2011; 30:1047-58. [PMID: 21888962 DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2011.08.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2011] [Revised: 07/23/2011] [Accepted: 08/16/2011] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The success of competitive interactions between plants determines the chance of survival of individuals and eventually of whole plant species. Shade-tolerant plants have adapted their photosynthesis to function optimally under low-light conditions. These plants are therefore capable of long-term survival under a canopy shade. In contrast, shade-avoiding plants adapt their growth to perceive maximum sunlight and therefore rapidly dominate gaps in a canopy. Daylight contains roughly equal proportions of red and far-red light, but within vegetation that ratio is lowered as a result of red absorption by photosynthetic pigments. This light quality change is perceived through the phytochrome system as an unambiguous signal of the proximity of neighbors resulting in a suite of developmental responses (termed the shade avoidance response) that, when successful, result in the overgrowth of those neighbors. Shoot elongation induced by low red/far-red light may confer high relative fitness in natural dense communities. However, since elongation is often achieved at the expense of leaf and root growth, shade avoidance may lead to reduction in crop plant productivity. Over the past decade, major progresses have been achieved in the understanding of the molecular basis of shade avoidance. However, uncovering the mechanisms underpinning plant response and adaptation to changes in the ratio of red to far-red light is key to design new strategies to precise modulate shade avoidance in time and space without impairing the overall crop ability to compete for light.
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Affiliation(s)
- I Ruberti
- Institute of Molecular Biology and Pathology, National Research Council, Piazzalle Aldo Moro 5, Rome, Italy.
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12
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Zádníková P, Petrásek J, Marhavy P, Raz V, Vandenbussche F, Ding Z, Schwarzerová K, Morita MT, Tasaka M, Hejátko J, Van Der Straeten D, Friml J, Benková E. Role of PIN-mediated auxin efflux in apical hook development of Arabidopsis thaliana. Development 2010; 137:607-17. [PMID: 20110326 DOI: 10.1242/dev.041277] [Citation(s) in RCA: 221] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
The apical hook of dark-grown Arabidopsis seedlings is a simple structure that develops soon after germination to protect the meristem tissues during emergence through the soil and that opens upon exposure to light. Differential growth at the apical hook proceeds in three sequential steps that are regulated by multiple hormones, principally auxin and ethylene. We show that the progress of the apical hook through these developmental phases depends on the dynamic, asymmetric distribution of auxin, which is regulated by auxin efflux carriers of the PIN family. Several PIN proteins exhibited specific, partially overlapping spatial and temporal expression patterns, and their subcellular localization suggested auxin fluxes during hook development. Genetic manipulation of individual PIN activities interfered with different stages of hook development, implying that specific combinations of PIN genes are required for progress of the apical hook through the developmental phases. Furthermore, ethylene might modulate apical hook development by prolonging the formation phase and strongly suppressing the maintenance phase. This ethylene effect is in part mediated by regulation of PIN-dependent auxin efflux and auxin signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Petra Zádníková
- Department of Plant Systems Biology, Flanders Institute for Biotechnology (VIB) and Department of Plant Biotechnology and Genetics, Ghent University, Gent, Belgium
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13
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Kazan K, Manners JM. Linking development to defense: auxin in plant-pathogen interactions. TRENDS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2009; 14:373-82. [PMID: 19559643 DOI: 10.1016/j.tplants.2009.04.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 314] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2009] [Revised: 04/24/2009] [Accepted: 04/27/2009] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Although the plant growth hormone auxin has long been recognized as a regulator of plant defense, the molecular mechanisms involved are still largely unknown. Recent studies reviewed here reveal new insights into the role of auxin in plant defense. Similar to the signaling pathways of the defense-associated plant hormones salicylic acid (SA) and jasmonic acid (JA), auxin signaling differentially affects resistance to separate pathogen groups. Recent evidence suggests that the auxin and SA pathways act in a mutually antagonistic manner during plant defense, whereas auxin and JA signaling share many commonalities. Auxin also affects disease outcomes indirectly through effects on development. Here, we discuss the multiple ways in which auxin regulation of plant growth and development might be intimately linked to plant defense.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kemal Kazan
- Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation Plant Industry, Queensland Bioscience Precinct, St Lucia, QLD 4067, Australia.
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14
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Yang G, Mei T, Yuan H, Zhang W, Chen L, Xue J, Wu L, Wang Y. Bystander/abscopal effects induced in intact Arabidopsis seeds by low-energy heavy-ion radiation. Radiat Res 2008; 170:372-80. [PMID: 18763864 DOI: 10.1667/rr1324.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2007] [Accepted: 03/02/2008] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
To date, radiation-induced bystander effects have been observed largely in in vitro single-cell systems; verification of both the effects and the mechanisms in multicellular systems in vivo is important. Previously we showed that bystander/ abscopal effects can be induced by irradiating the shoot apical meristem cells in Arabidopsis embryos. In this study, we investigated the in vivo effects induced by 30 keV 40Ar ions in intact Arabidopsis seeds and traced the postembryonic development of both irradiated and nonirradiated shoot apical meristem and root apical meristem cells. Since the range of 30 keV 40Ar ions in water is about 0.07 microm, which is less than the distance from the testa to shoot apical meristem and root apical meristem in Arabidopsis seeds (about 100 microm), the incident low-energy heavy ions generally stop in the proximal surface. Our results showed that, after the 30 keV 40Ar-ion irradiation of shielded and nonshielded Arabidopsis seeds at a fluence of 1.5 x 10(17) ions/cm2, short- and long-term postembryonic development, including germination, root hair differentiation, primary root elongation, lateral root initiation and survival, was significantly inhibited. Since shoot apical meristem and root apical meristem cells were not damaged directly by radiation, the results suggested that a damage signal(s) is transferred from the irradiated cells to shoot apical meristem and root apical meristem cells and causes the ultimate developmental alterations, indicating that long-distance bystander/ abscopal effects exist in the intact seed. A further study of mechanisms showed that the effects are associated with either enhanced generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) or decreased auxin-dependent transcription in postembryonic development. Treatment with the ROS scavenger dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) or synthetic auxin 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) can significantly reverse both the alterations in postembryonic development and auxin-dependent transcription, suggesting that ROS and auxin-dependent transcription processes play essential roles in the low-energy heavy-ion radiation-induced long-distance bystander/abscopal effects in the intact organism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gen Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Nuclear Physics and Technology, Peking University, Beijing 100871, People's Republic of China
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15
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De Grauwe L, Chaerle L, Dugardeyn J, Decat J, Rieu I, Vriezen WH, Moritz T, Beemster GTS, Phillips AL, Harberd NP, Hedden P, Van Der Straeten D. Reduced gibberellin response affects ethylene biosynthesis and responsiveness in the Arabidopsis gai eto2-1 double mutant. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2008; 177:128-141. [PMID: 18078472 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-8137.2007.02263.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Ethylene and gibberellins (GAs) control similar developmental processes in plants. The role of ethylene is at least in part to regulate the accumulation of DELLA proteins, key regulators of plant growth, which suppress the GA response. To expand our knowledge of ethylene-GA crosstalk and to reveal how the modulation of the ethylene and GA pathways affects global plant growth, the gibberellin-insensitive (gai), ethylene-overproducing 2-1 (eto2-1) double mutant, which has decreased GA signalling (resulting from gai) and increased ethylene biosynthesis (resulting from eto2-1), was characterized. Both single mutations resulted in reduced elongation growth. The double mutant showed synergistic responses in root and shoot growth, in induction of floral transition, and in inflorescence length, showing that crosstalk between the two pathways occurs in different plant organs throughout development. Furthermore, the altered ethylene-GA interactions affected root-shoot communication, as evidenced by an enhanced shoot:root ratio in the double mutant. When compared with both single mutants and the wild type, double mutants had enhanced content of active GA(4) at both the seedling and the rosette stages, and, unlike the gai mutant, they were sensitive to GA treatment. Finally, it was shown that synergistic responses in the double mutant were not caused by elevated ethylene biosynthesis but that, in the light, enhanced sensitivity to ethylene may, at least in part, be responsible for the observed phenotype.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liesbeth De Grauwe
- Unit Plant Hormone Signaling and Bio-Imaging, Department of Molecular Genetics, Ghent University, K.L. Ledeganckstraat 35, B-9000 Gent, Belgium
| | - Laury Chaerle
- Unit Plant Hormone Signaling and Bio-Imaging, Department of Molecular Genetics, Ghent University, K.L. Ledeganckstraat 35, B-9000 Gent, Belgium
| | - Jasper Dugardeyn
- Unit Plant Hormone Signaling and Bio-Imaging, Department of Molecular Genetics, Ghent University, K.L. Ledeganckstraat 35, B-9000 Gent, Belgium
| | - Jan Decat
- Unit Plant Hormone Signaling and Bio-Imaging, Department of Molecular Genetics, Ghent University, K.L. Ledeganckstraat 35, B-9000 Gent, Belgium
| | - Ivo Rieu
- Crop Performance Improvement Division, Rothamsted Research, Harpenden AL5 2JQ, Herts, UK
| | - Wim H Vriezen
- Unit Plant Hormone Signaling and Bio-Imaging, Department of Molecular Genetics, Ghent University, K.L. Ledeganckstraat 35, B-9000 Gent, Belgium
| | - Thomas Moritz
- Umeå Plant Science Centre, Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, SE-901 87 Umeå, Sweden
| | - Gerrit T S Beemster
- Plant Systems Biology, Flemish Institute of Biology (VIB)/Ghent University, Technologiepark 927, B-9052 Gent, Belgium
| | - Andy L Phillips
- Crop Performance Improvement Division, Rothamsted Research, Harpenden AL5 2JQ, Herts, UK
| | | | - Peter Hedden
- Crop Performance Improvement Division, Rothamsted Research, Harpenden AL5 2JQ, Herts, UK
| | - Dominique Van Der Straeten
- Unit Plant Hormone Signaling and Bio-Imaging, Department of Molecular Genetics, Ghent University, K.L. Ledeganckstraat 35, B-9000 Gent, Belgium
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16
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Ripetti V, Escoute J, Verdeil JL, Costes E. Shaping the shoot: the relative contribution of cell number and cell shape to variations in internode length between parent and hybrid apple trees. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2008; 59:1399-407. [PMID: 18390886 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/ern049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
Genetic control of plant size and shape is a promising perspective, particularly in fruit trees, in order to select desirable genotypes. A recent study on architectural traits in an apple progeny showed that internode length was a highly heritable character. However, few studies have been devoted to internode cellular patterning in dicotyledonous stems, and the interplay between the two elementary cell processes that contribute to their length, i.e. cell division and elongation, is not fully understood. The present study aimed at unravelling their contributions in the genetic variation of internode length in a selection of F(1) and parent genotypes of apple tree, by exploring the number of cells and cell shape within mature internodes belonging to the main axes. The results highlighted that both the variables were homogeneous in samples collected either along a sagital line or along the pith width, and suggest that cell lengthening was homogeneous during internode development. They allowed the total number of cells to be estimated on the internode scale and opened up new perspectives for simplifying tissue sampling procedures for further investigations. Differences in internode length were observed between the genotypes, in particular between the parents, and partly resulted from a compensation between cell number and cell length. However, genetic variations in internode length primarily involved the number of cells, while cell length was more secondary. These results argue for an interplay between cellular and organismal control of internode shape that may involve the rib meristem.
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Affiliation(s)
- V Ripetti
- INRA, UMR Développement et Amélioration des Plantes, CIRAD-INRA-SupAgro, Team Architecture et Fonctionnement des Espèces Fruitières, 2, Place Viala, F-34060 Montpellier, France
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17
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Potters G, Pasternak TP, Guisez Y, Palme KJ, Jansen MAK. Stress-induced morphogenic responses: growing out of trouble? TRENDS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2007; 12:98-105. [PMID: 17287141 DOI: 10.1016/j.tplants.2007.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 363] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2006] [Revised: 12/04/2006] [Accepted: 01/29/2007] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Plants exposed to sub-lethal abiotic stress conditions exhibit a broad range of morphogenic responses. Despite the diversity of phenotypes, a generic 'stress-induced morphogenic response' can be recognized that appears to be carefully orchestrated and comprises three components: (a) inhibition of cell elongation, (b) localized stimulation of cell division and (c) alterations in cell differentiation status. It is hypothesized that the similarities in the morphogenic responses induced by distinct stresses, reflect common molecular processes such as increased ROS-production and altered phytohormone transport and/or metabolism. The stress-induced morphogenic response (SIMR) is postulated to be part of a general acclimation strategy, whereby plant growth is redirected to diminish stress exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Geert Potters
- Department of Applied Biological Sciences, University of Antwerp, Groenenborgerlaan 171, B-2020 Belgium
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18
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Kaitaniemi P, Ruohomäki K. Uncaged larvae elicit a combination of local and integrated growth responses within mountain birch crown. OIKOS 2006. [DOI: 10.1111/j.2006.0030-1299.14878.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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19
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Roberts MR, Paul ND. Seduced by the dark side: integrating molecular and ecological perspectives on the influence of light on plant defence against pests and pathogens. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2006; 170:677-99. [PMID: 16684231 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-8137.2006.01707.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 180] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
Plants frequently suffer attack from herbivores and microbial pathogens, and have evolved a complex array of defence mechanisms to resist defoliation and disease. These include both preformed defences, ranging from structural features to stores of toxic secondary metabolites, and inducible defences, which are activated only after an attack is detected. It is well known that plant defences against pests and pathogens are commonly affected by environmental conditions, but the mechanisms by which responses to the biotic and abiotic environments interact are only poorly understood. In this review, we consider the impact of light on plant defence, in terms of both plant life histories and rapid scale molecular responses to biotic attack. We bring together evidence that illustrates that light not only modulates defence responses via its influence on biochemistry and plant development but, in some cases, is essential for the development of resistance. We suggest that the interaction between the light environment and plant defence is multifaceted, and extends across different temporal and biological scales.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael R Roberts
- Department of Biological Sciences, Lancaster Environment Centre, Lancaster University, Lancaster LA1 4YQ, UK.
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20
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Schruff MC, Spielman M, Tiwari S, Adams S, Fenby N, Scott RJ. The AUXIN RESPONSE FACTOR 2 gene of Arabidopsis links auxin signalling, cell division, and the size of seeds and other organs. Development 2005; 133:251-61. [PMID: 16339187 DOI: 10.1242/dev.02194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 403] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Control of seed size involves complex interactions among the zygotic embryo and endosperm, the maternally derived seed coat, and the parent plant. Here we describe a mutant in Arabidopsis, megaintegumenta (mnt), in which seed size and weight are dramatically increased. One factor in this is extra cell division in the integuments surrounding mnt mutant ovules, leading to the formation of enlarged seed coats. Unusually for integument mutants, mnt does not impair female fertility. The mnt lesion also has pleiotropic effects on vegetative and floral development, causing extra cell division and expansion in many organs. mnt was identified as a mutant allele of AUXIN RESPONSE FACTOR 2 (ARF2), a member of a family of transcription factors that mediate gene expression in response to auxin. The mutant phenotype and gene expression studies described here provide evidence that MNT/ARF2 is a repressor of cell division and organ growth. The mutant phenotype also illustrates the importance of growth of the ovule before fertilization in determining final size of the seed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie C Schruff
- Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Bath, Claverton Down, Bath BA2 7AY, UK
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21
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SUGIYAMA S. Developmental basis of interspecific differences in leaf size and specific leaf area among C3 grass species. Funct Ecol 2005. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2435.2005.01044.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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22
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Sessa G, Carabelli M, Sassi M, Ciolfi A, Possenti M, Mittempergher F, Becker J, Morelli G, Ruberti I. A dynamic balance between gene activation and repression regulates the shade avoidance response in Arabidopsis. Genes Dev 2005; 19:2811-5. [PMID: 16322556 PMCID: PMC1315388 DOI: 10.1101/gad.364005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 193] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2005] [Accepted: 09/29/2005] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Plants grown under dense canopies perceive through the phytochrome system a reduction in the ratio of red to far-red light as a warning of competition, and this triggers a series of morphological changes to avoid shade. Several phytochrome signaling intermediates acting as positive regulators of accelerated elongation growth and induction of flowering in shade avoidance have been identified. Here we report that a negative regulatory mechanism ensures that in the presence of far-red-rich light an exaggerated plant response does not occur. Strikingly, this unpredicted negative regulatory mechanism is centrally involved in the attenuation of virtually all plant responses to canopy shade.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giovanna Sessa
- Institute of Molecular Biology and Pathology, National Research Council, 00185 Rome, Italy
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23
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Vandenbussche F, Pierik R, Millenaar FF, Voesenek LACJ, Van Der Straeten D. Reaching out of the shade. CURRENT OPINION IN PLANT BIOLOGY 2005; 8:462-8. [PMID: 16040269 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbi.2005.07.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2005] [Accepted: 07/13/2005] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Competition for light determines the success of individual plants in dense vegetation. Much depends on the capacity of plants to detect neighbours quickly and on their ability to respond to these signals. Recent findings indicate that although red:far-red ratios, and thus phytochromes, are of major importance in shade-avoidance responses, they do not act alone. Differences in light intensity also provoke shade-avoidance phenotypes, with blue light playing an important role in dense stands. Moreover, links between shade-avoidance signalling and auxins, gibberellins and ethylene have emerged. Additional breakthroughs are based on transcriptome studies that have unveiled new components in the response to shading. Amongst these, the phytochrome interacting factor 3-like proteins PIL1 and PIL2 underline the importance of circadian gating in shade avoidance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Filip Vandenbussche
- Unit Plant Hormone Signalling and Bio-imaging, Department of Molecular Genetics, Ghent University, Ledeganckstraat 35, B-9000 Gent, Belgium
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24
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De Grauwe L, Vandenbussche F, Tietz O, Palme K, Van Der Straeten D. Auxin, ethylene and brassinosteroids: tripartite control of growth in the Arabidopsis hypocotyl. PLANT & CELL PHYSIOLOGY 2005; 46:827-36. [PMID: 15851402 DOI: 10.1093/pcp/pci111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Dark-grown Arabidopsis seedlings develop an apical hook by differential cell elongation and division, a process driven by cross-talk between multiple hormones. Auxins, ethylene and gibberellins interact in the formation of the apical hook. In the light, a similar complexity of hormonal regulation has been revealed at the level of hypocotyl elongation. Here, we describe the involvement of brassinosteroids (BRs) in auxin- and ethylene-controlled processes in the hypocotyls of both light- and dark-grown seedlings. We show that BR biosynthesis is necessary for the formation of an exaggerated apical hook and that either application of BRs or disruption of BR synthesis alters auxin response, presumably by affecting auxin transport, eventually resulting in the disappearance of the apical hook. Furthermore, we demonstrate that ethylene-stimulated hypocotyl elongation in the light is largely controlled by the same mechanisms as those governing formation of the apical hook in darkness. However, in the light, BRs appear to compensate for the insensitivity to ethylene in hls mutants, supporting a downstream action of BRs. Hence, our results indicate that HLS1, SUR1/HLS3/RTY1/ALF1 and AMP1/HPT/COP2/HLS2/PT act on the auxin-ethylene interaction, rather than at the level of BRs. A model for the tripartite hormone interactions is presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liesbeth De Grauwe
- Unit Plant Hormone Signaling and Bio-imaging, Department of Molecular Genetics, Ghent University, Ledeganckstraat 35, B-9000 Gent, Belgium
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