Determination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in human biological samples: A critical review

Salt assisted liquid-liquid extraction combined with dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction for the determination of 24 regulated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in human serum

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are persistent organic pollutants of great concern due to their carcinogenicity and mutagenicity. Their determination in human serum, particularly in at-risk populations, is necessary but difficult because they are distributed over a wide range of polarity and are present at trace level. A new method combining salting-out assisted liquid-liquid extraction (SALLE) and dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction with solidification of floating organic drop (DLLME-SFO) adapted to a reduced volume of sample (100 µl) was developed to determine 24 PAHs in human serum. Some key parameters of DLLME-SFO (volume of extraction solvent, ratio of extraction/dispersive solvent volumes, and salt addition) were first studied by applying it to spiked pure water. For its application to serum, a sample treatment step involving SALLE was optimized in terms of nature and content of salts and applied upstream of DLLME-SFO. It was applied to the extraction of 24 regulated PAHs from spiked serum followed by an analysis by liquid chromatography coupled with UV and fluorescence detection. The extraction recoveries ranged from 48.2 and 116.0 % (relative standard deviations: 2.0-14.6 %, n=5-9), leading to limits of quantification of PAHs in human serum from 0.04 to 1.03 µg/L using fluorescence detection and from 10 to 40 µg/L using UV detection. This final method combining SALLE and DLLME-SFO showed numerous advantages such as no evaporation step, high efficiency and low solvent-consumption and will be useful for monitoring PAHs in low volumes of serum.

Human biomonitoring of serum polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and oxygenated derivatives by gas chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry

While polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are well-known for their potential carcinogenic and mutagenic effects, the health implications of exposure to oxygenated PAHs (OPAHs), which are significant substitutes with increased persistence and bioaccumulation, are less understood. In this work, we compared the background levels of liquid-liquid, solid-phase, and supported-liquid extraction for the determination of serum PAHs and OPAHs. Liquid-liquid extraction demonstrated minimal background interference and was validated and used for human biomonitoring of PAHs and OPAHs in 240 participants using gas chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry. We observed significant positive correlations between these compounds using Spearman correlation analysis. Furthermore, we investigated the concentration levels and compositions of PAHs and OPAHs among different demographic characteristics, including gender, age, and body mass index. Linear regression analysis demonstrated a weak but significant correlation between total concentrations of PAHs and OPAHs and age and body mass index. A multivariate linear regression analysis was then conducted to examine the association of exposure to individual PAHs and OPAHs with the body mass index. Naphthalene exposure and body mass index showed a statistically significant positive correlation, suggesting that higher levels of naphthalene exposure are associated with higher body mass index values. This study establishes a robust method for biomonitoring PAHs and OPAHs in serum, evaluating the exposure levels of these compounds in healthy adults and highlighting their associations with demographic characteristics.

Personal exposure to gaseous and particulate phase polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and nanoparticles and lung deposited surface area (LDSA) for soot among Norwegian chimney sweepers

Exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) of high molecular weight from chimney soot can cause cancer among chimney sweepers. These sweepers may also be exposed to high concentrations of nanosized particles, which can cause significant inflammatory responses due to their relatively greater surface area per mass. In this study, the authors aimed to assess the exposure profiles of airborne personal exposure to gaseous and particulate PAHs, and real-time samples of the particle number concentrations (PNCs), particle sizes, and lung-deposited surface areas (LDSAs), for chimney sweepers in Norway. Additionally, the authors aimed to assess the task-based exposure concentrations of PNCs, sizes, and LDSAs while working on different tasks. The results are based on personal samples of particulate PAHs (n = 68), gaseous PAHs (n = 28), and real-time nanoparticles (n = 8) collected from 17 chimney sweepers. Samples were collected during a "typical work week" of chimney sweeping and fire safety inspections, then during a "massive soot" week, where larger sweeping missions took place. Significantly higher PAH concentrations were measured during the "massive soot" week compared to the "typical work week," however, the time-weighted average (TWA) (8-hr) of all gaseous and particulate PAHs ranged from 0.52 to 4.47 µg/m3 and 0.49 to 2.50 µg/m3, respectively, well below the Norwegian occupational exposure limit (OEL) of 40 µg/m3. The PNCs were high during certain activities, such as emptying the vacuum cleaner. Additionally, during 2 days of sweeping in a waste sorting facility, the TWAs of the PNCs were 3.6 × 104 and 7.1 × 104 particles/cm3 on the first and second days, respectively, which were near and above the proposed nano reference limit TWA value of 4.0 × 104 particles/cm3 proposed by the International Workshop on Nano Reference Values. The corresponding TWAs of the LDSAs were 49.5 and 54.5 µm2/cm3, respectively. The chimney sweepers seemed aware of the potential health risks associated with exposure, and suitable personal protective equipment was used. However, the PNCs reported for the activities show that when the activities change or increase, the PNCs' TWAs can become unacceptably high.

Integration approach of transcriptomics and metabolomics reveals the toxicity of Anthracene and its chlorinated derivatives on human hepatic cells

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and Chlorinated PAHs (Cl-PAHs) are ubiquitous environmental contaminants. The toxicological information of anthracene (Ant) and its chlorinated derivatives is quite limited. In this study, an integrated metabolomic and transcriptomic analysis approach was adopted to assess the toxic effects triggered by Ant and its chlorinated derivatives, 2-chloroanthracene (2-ClAnt) and 9,10-dichloroanthracen (9,10-Cl2Ant), at human-relevant levels on human normal hepatocyte L02 cells. The cell viability test showed no significant effects on the viability of L02 cells exposed to Ant, 2-ClAnt and 9,10-Cl2Ant at doses of 5-500 nM for 24 h. However, based on transcriptomic analysis, Ant, 2-ClAnt and 9,10-Cl2Ant exposure at human-relevant levels obviously perturbed global gene expression in L02 cells and induced the differential expression of several genes related to cancer development. As the number of genes related to cancer development altered by 9,10-Cl2Ant is the largest, 9,10-Cl2Ant posed greater risks of tumor development than Ant and 2-ClAnt did. Metabolomics analysis demonstrated that Ant, 2-ClAnt and 9,10-Cl2Ant caused significant metabolic perturbation in L02 cells. Pathway enrichment analysis indicated that Ant, 2-ClAnt and 9,10-Cl2Ant mainly perturbed the lipid metabolism and nucleotide metabolism pathway. However, 9,10-Cl2Ant caused a wider perturbation to metabolic pathways than Ant and 2-ClAnt did. In addition, dysregulation of nucleotide metabolism perturbed by Ant, 2-ClAnt and 9,10-Cl2Ant may be associated with the genomic instability and further carcinogenesis.

Saliva as a diagnostic tool to measure polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon exposure in dental patients exposed to intimate partner violence (IPV)

BACKGROUND

Social habits such as tobacco use, alcohol consumption, and chemically contaminated diet contribute to poor oral health. Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) is a global public health epidemic which can exacerbate the prevalence of health conditions affecting a victim's lifespan. This study investigates using saliva as a biomarker for detecting levels of benzo(a)pyrene [B(a)P]; a toxicant present in cigarette smoke and barbecued meat in a population of IPV + female patients.

METHODS

A cross-sectional IRB-approved study utilized 63 female participants (37 African Americans [AA], and 26 non-African Americans [NAA]), who provided consent for the study. Participants submitted samples of saliva, as well as questionnaires about demographics, health history, and a well-validated (IPV) screen.

RESULTS

The prevalence of IPV was greater in AA compared to NAA. While the concentrations of PAHs/B(a)P detected in saliva of IPV samples in NAA were generally within the range of B(a)P reported for saliva from elsewhere, the concentrations were high in some IPV positive samples. Among the B(a)P metabolites, the concentrations of B(a)P 7,8-diol, B(a)P 3,6- and 6,12-dione metabolites were greater than the other metabolite in both AA and non-AA groups who were positive.

CONCLUSION

Our study supports the use of saliva as a potential "diagnostic rheostat" to identify toxicants that may exacerbate/precipitate systemic disease in female victims of IPV. In addition, our study is the first to report that IPV may precipitate the accumulation of B(a)P in oral cavity that can alter inflammatory cascades and increase risk of poor health outcomes in this population of patients.

The effect of toxic air pollutants on fertility men and women, fetus and birth rate

Human health is affected by various factors such as air pollutants. Exposure to toxic air pollutants is impaired fertility in men and women. The purpose of this review study was investigation of the effect of toxic air pollutants on fertility and birth rate. Databases used to for searched were the PubMed, Web of Science, Springer and Science Direct (Scopus) and Google Scholar. Identify all relevant studies published 1999-2022. In this study, according to databases five hundred articles were retrieved. 33 studies were screened after review and 19 full-text articles entered into the analysis process. Finally, 11 articles were selected in this study. The literature signs a notable health effects from toxic air pollutants and increase risk of infertility in men and women and having a variety of reproductive system cancers such as prostate, bladder, ovary, kidney and uterus. According to the finding toxic air pollutants can increase the risk infertility in men and women, incidence of cancers of reproductive system and decrease the birth rate. Activities that play an important role in reducing the health effects of toxic air pollutants such as infertility in men and women and reducing the population rate of communities are improving the quality of fuel used in the home, car, industries, changing production processes in large industries, installing catalysts to reduce emissions in cars, use more public transportation, plant trees and increase green space per capita, increase public awareness about various effects of toxic air pollutants and protective measures.

Recent trends in pesticides in crops: A critical review of the duality of risks-benefits and the Brazilian legislation issue

Due to the increasing population worldwide, in recent years, an exponential increase in agricultural practices has occurred in order to attend to the growing demand for food. Unfortunately, this increase is not associated with the supply of foodstuffs free of environmental pollutants. In Brazil, agriculture is one of the most important economic pillars, making the country one of the largest consumers of pesticides around the world. The intense use of pesticides, mainly glyphosate, 2,4-D, and atrazine, constitutes an essential factor in the viability of this great agricultural productivity. Sugarcane, corn, soybean, and citrus crops consume around 66% of the total pesticides worldwide, representing 76% of the planted area. Pesticide residues have been frequently detected in food and the environment, becoming a significant concern for human health. Monitoring programs for pesticide use are essential to reduce the potential negative impacts on the environment and improve the overall efficiency and sustainability of their use. However, in Brazil, the approval status of pesticide-active ingredients is very discrepant compared to other agricultural countries. Moreover, the duality of benefits and risks of pesticide application creates an economic and toxicological conflict. In this paper, we have critically reviewed the duality of risks-benefits of the use of pesticides in agriculture and the current Brazilian legislation issues. We have also compared this flawed legislation with other countries with high economic potential. Due to the negative environmental impacts on soil and water by the high levels of pesticides, remediation techniques, sustainable agriculture, and the development of new technologies can be considered some viable alternatives to reduce the levels in these compartments. Besides, this paper includes some recommendations that can be included in the coming years.

Effect of stereoconfiguration of aromatic ligands on retention and selectivity of terphenyl isomer-bonded stationary phases

The structure of ligands has a significant influence on the separation properties of alkyl and aromatic phases in reversed-phase liquid chromatography. Compared with alkyl phases, the effect of stereoconfiguration of aromatic ligands on the retention and selectivity of stationary phases has rarely been addressed. To illustrate the issue, three terphenyl isomer-bonded stationary phases were prepared via the coupling chemistry of isocyanate with terphenyl amine isomers, 3,4-diphenylaniline, 2,4-diphenylaniline and 4-amino-p-terphenyl, respectively. The retention behaviors of stationary phases were assessed in terms of retention strength, selectivity, hydrophobic and π-π interaction by five kinds of solutes. It is found that the selectivity towards the solutes is slightly larger on the branched m-terphenyl-bonded phase (m-π³) than o-terphenyl-bonded phase (o-π³) but is significantly improved on the chain p-terphenyl-bonded phase (p-π³). The results can be interpreted by the ease self-adjustment of the conformation of the chain p-terphenyl ligand and the smaller steric effect of p-π³ towards the insertion of solutes into the ligand brushes. In addition, the p-π³ yields excellent selective separation towards aromatic solutes. These findings are of significance in the design of aromatic stationary phases.

Biomonitoring of organic pollutants in pet dog plasma samples in North-Western Spain

Most of organic pollutants (OPs) have the ability to interfere with biological systems causing negative effects in living beings, including humans. In the last decades, pets have been used as bioindicators of human exposure because they share the same habitat with their homeowners. We sought to determine levels of approximately 70 OPs, including polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), polybrominated biphenyl ethers (PBDEs), organophosphate pesticides (OPPs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and pyrethroids (PYRs) in plasma samples from 39 pet dogs from Ourense (north-western Spain). The results revealed that PAHs were the dominant OPs (mean value 175 ± 319 ng/g lipid weight (lw)), followed by PYRs (132 ± 352 ng/g lw), PCBs (122 ± 96 ng/g lw), OCPs (33 ± 17 ng/g lw), PBDEs (19 ± 18 ng/g lw) and OPPs (2.1 ± 2.7 ng/g lw) in plasma samples. We have previously detected the target OPs in hair samples of pets, collected simultaneously and similar trend of some OPs has been observed. Moreover, pyrene and chrysene showed correlations between levels detected in both matrices.

Optimization of a simple, effective, and greener methodology for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon extraction from human adipose tissue

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are environmentally persistent organic pollutants formed during incomplete combustion and pyrolysis processes. Humans are continuously exposed to PAHs which are linked to severe health effects such as diabetes, cancer, infertility, and poor foetal development, amongst others. PAHs are lipophilic compounds prone to accumulating in adipose tissue. Even though adipose tissue is the ideal matrix to assess over time accumulation of lipophilic pollutants, only a few analytical methods have been developed for this matrix. Aiming to reduce the existent gap, a method for the extraction of PAHs from adipose tissue samples using ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) was developed. The behaviour of PAHs (retention, adsorption, and volatilization) over several steps of the analytical procedure was studied. Validation tests were performed on the optimized method. PAHs were quantified using a high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) system equipped with a photodiode array (PDA) and fluorescence (FLD) detector inline. The method achieved a low matrix effect and presents low method detection (MDL) and quantification (MQL) limits, showing suitability for a selective and sensitive determination of PAHs in adipose tissue. The extraction is performed with 0.4 g of adipose tissue and 6 mL of n-hexane and it does not require clean-up afterwards. Additionally, an Eco-Scale score of 74 and an Analytical GREEnness score of 0.66 were obtained. The method achieved is effective, simpler, greener, and easy to perform, being an alternative to conventional extraction methods. Furthermore, this method can be used as a multi-analyte methodology since it has been previously validated by the authors for the analysis of other lipophilic compounds. Naphthalene (Naph), acenaphthene (Ace), fluorene (Flu), phenanthrene (Phe), anthracene (Ant), fluoranthene (Fln), pyrene (Pyr) and benzo[k]fluoranthene (B[k]Ft) were found in all the tested adipose tissue samples.

Supported liquid extraction and ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry for the determination of urinary polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon metabolites and their application for human biomonitoring

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are a class of highly lipophilic and ubiquitous, persistent organic pollutants with carcinogenic and mutagenic toxicities. They are a great public health concern, and avoiding exposure to them is a high priority. Human biomonitoring is critical for the evaluation of exposure levels to PAHs by the general population. In this work, we demonstrated the biomonitoring of eleven hydroxylated PAHs (OHPAHs) in urine samples from 226 volunteers from Guangzhou, and evaluated the health risks. The urinary PAH metabolites were released by enzymatic deconjugation, separated, and enriched by supported liquid extraction, and then quantified by ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. The limit of quantification of the individual OHPAHs ranged from 10 ng/L to 40 ng/L, and satisfactory recoveries were obtained, ranging from 92.6% to 97.6%. The detection frequencies of the OHPAHs were 100%, and naphthalene metabolites were found at the highest concentrations with a geometric mean of 8.61 μg/L. The mean total OHPAH level in the urine samples of males (13.2 μg/L) was significantly higher than that of females (5.84 μg/L). Pearson correlation analyses indicated significant and positive correlations among urinary OHPAHs. The total estimated daily intake of PAHs was calculated, and a low health risk was obtained by evaluating their hazard quotients and hazard indexes.

Microbead-Beating Extraction of Polycyclic Aromatic Compounds from Seabird Plasma and Whole Blood

Seabirds are widely regarded as an invaluable bioindicator of environmental health. Matrices including eggs and feathers have been used as non-lethal means to assess contaminant burdens. We have developed a new approach for extraction of polycyclic aromatic compounds (PACs) from seabird plasma and serum based on automated microbead-beating homogenization and extraction. Commercially available bovine serum and plasma were purposely fortified with a suite of PACs separately at three dosing levels, placed inside a custom-made stainless-steel tube containing ceramic microbeads, and subjected to an extraction process using a Precellys tissue homogenizer. Tubes were shaken forcefully in three-dimensions, facilitating high mass-transfer of PACs from the matrix into the hexane extraction solvent. The accuracy of the method ranged from 55 to 120% and limits of detection and quantitation ranged from 0.1 to 8 and 0.2 to 27 pg/μL, respectively. The method exhibited good repeatability with both inter- and intra-day repeatability < 30%. The developed method represents an effective and efficient approach to extraction of PACs from important biological matrices.

Multibiomarker approach in fish to assess a heavily polluted Brazilian estuary, Guanabara Bay

Brazil's Guanabara Bay (GB), located in Rio De Janeiro, is a deeply contaminated, eutrophic waterbody that challenges the understanding of the effects of pollutants on the biota. This paper presents a strategy to evaluate the impact of contamination utilizing a multibiomarker approach in two fish species: corvine (Micropogonias furnieri) and burrfish (Chilomycterus spinosus). The strategy is comprised of a general biomarker of fish' physical condition, the condition factor (CF), and specific biomarkers of pollutant exposure such as acetylcholinesterase (AChE), metallothionein (MT) activity and biliary polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) metabolites. Our results indicate that fish from GB are greatly affected by environmental pollution. CF values were lower in fishes from GB than in the reference site indicating that these fishes were under higher environmental stress. Lower AChE activity level in both species showed vulnerability to the presence of pesticide residues. Higher levels of MT in both species in GB reflect the consequences of heavy metal exposure in the bay, in spite of their bioavailability being restricted specially by the high organic matter content of GB. The levels of PAHs were higher in GB for both fish species, indicating exposure to these substances. However, the fish species showed different behavior regarding the origin of the PAHs. The multibiomarker approach used in this study evidently depicted effects on the health of fish in a waterbody with a complex polluted situation and further categorized the effects of anthropogenic activities in this aquatic system.

Determination of Hydroxy Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Human Urine Using Automated Microextraction by Packed Sorbent and Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry

A fast methodology for the determination of monohydroxy polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in human urine using a fully automated microextraction by packed sorbent coupled to a gas chromatograph-mass spectrometer is reported. Sample preparation requires simple hydrolysis, centrifugation, filtration, and dilution. The method does not require a derivatization step prior to analysis with gas chromatography and allows the measurement of up to three samples per hour after hydrolysis. Quantitation is carried out by a one-point standard addition allowing the determination of 6 analytes with good limits of detection (10.1-39.6 ng L^-1 in water and 0.5-19.4 µg L^-1 in urine), accuracy (88-110%) and precision (2.1-23.4% in water and 5.1-19.0% in urine) values. This method has been successfully applied to the analysis of six urine samples (three from smoker and three from non-smoker subjects), finding significant differences between both types of samples. Results were similar to those found in the literature for similar samples, which proves the applicability of the methodology.

Decomposition of Naphthalene by Dielectric Barrier Discharge in Conjunction with a Catalyst at Atmospheric Pressure

In this study, coaxial dielectric barrier discharge (DBD) plasma, in conjunction with a metal oxide catalyst, was used to degrade naphthalene. The characteristics of plasma discharge were studied by measuring voltage and current waveforms and the Lissajous figure. The effects of different parameters of the process on naphthalene decomposition in air were investigated. XRD, BET, and SEM data were used to investigate the nature, specific surface area, and surface morphology of the catalyst. The results show that the mineralization of naphthalene reached 82.2% when the initial naphthalene concentration was 21 ppm and the total gas flow rate was 1 L/min in the DBD reactor filled with Al2O3. The mineralization of naphthalene first increased and then became stable with the increase in treatment time and discharge power. The TiO2 catalyst has more apparent advantages than the two other studied catalysts in terms of the removal efficiency and mineralization of naphthalene due to this catalyst’s large specific surface area, porous structure, and photocatalytic properties. In addition, the introduction of a small amount of water vapor can promote the mineralization and CO2 selectivity of naphthalene. With further increases in the water vapor, Fe2O3 has a negative effect on the naphthalene oxidation due to its small pore size. The TiO2 catalyst can overcome the adverse effects of water molecule attachment due to its photocatalytic properties.

Urinary levels of monohydroxylated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in Brazilian children and health risk assessment: a human biomonitoring-based study

Monitoring human exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) is a public health concern. Children are a vulnerable subgroup of the population with limited human biomonitoring data worldwide. Thus, this study aimed to measure the levels of seven PAH metabolites in urine from Brazilian children and provide risk assessment values for this exposure. Our data show naphthalene was the major contributor to children's exposure to PAHs, with a 100% detection rate. Children in urban regions presented higher exposure to PAHs, with higher concentrations of 2-naphthol in the southeast (1.09 ng/mL, p < 0.05). Furthermore, the highest concentration of 2-naphthol was found in older children (p = 0.02), suggesting a possible difference in dietary habits. Exposure to the carbaryl insecticide is suggested based on the high concentrations of 1-naphthol (1.29 ng/mL) and considering the ratio 1-naphthol/2-naphthol (1.78). Moreover, the positive correlation between the metabolites of fluorine and pyrene also suggests exposure to PAHs by petrol combustion. The risk assessment of the PAH exposure was evaluated using the estimated daily intake (EDI) for two naphthalene metabolites in the study with a 100% detection rate. The EDI was 14.47 ng/kg BW/day. The risk assessment to the PAH exposure revealed a non-carcinogenic risk profile, with a hazard quotient of 0.71. To the best of our knowledge, this study is the first to provide levels of PAHs in Brazilian children.

Emerging contaminants of high concern for the environment: Current trends and future research

Wastewater is contaminated water that must be treated before it may be transferred into other rivers and lakes in order to prevent further groundwater pollution. Over the last decade, research has been conducted on a wide variety of contaminants, but the emerging contaminants are those caused primarily by micropollutants, endocrine disruptors (EDs), pesticides, pharmaceuticals, hormones, and toxins, as well as industrially-related synthetic dyes and dye-containing hazardous pollutants. Most emerging pollutants did not have established guidelines, but even at low concentrations they could have harmful effects on humans and aquatic organisms. In order to combat the above ecological threats, huge efforts have been done with a view to boosting the effectiveness of remediation procedures or developing new techniques for the detection, quantification and efficiency of the samples. The increase of interest in biotechnology and environmental engineering gives an opportunity for the development of more innovative ways to water treatment remediation. The purpose of this article is to provide an overview of emerging sources of contaminants, detection technologies, and treatment strategies. The goal of this review is to evaluate adsorption as a method for treating emerging pollutants, as well as sophisticated and cost-effective approaches for treating emerging contaminants.

Sponge-like porous manganese(II, III) oxide as a coating for solvent-assisted solid-phase microextraction of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons followed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry

A nanostructure sponge-like porous manganese(II, III) oxide was synthesized and applied as a new fiber coating for solvent-assisted solid-phase microextraction. The synthesized material was characterized via Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy, thermogravimetric analysis, X-ray diffraction, and N₂ adsorption/desorption techniques. To investigate the extraction performance of the prepared material, direct immersion solid-phase microextraction followed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry was used for the determination of the selected polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in wastewater samples. Three polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons including 1-methylnaphthalene, anthracene, and pyrene were selected as model analytes. To maximize the sensitivity of the method, key experimental factors affecting the extraction efficiency of the analytes such as ionic strength, extraction solvent, stirring rate, extraction temperature and time, and desorption temperature and time were optimized. The applicability of the new coating material for the extraction of the selected analytes from wastewater samples was evaluated. Under the optimum conditions, detection limits between 0.7 and 1.5 ng L^-1 were obtained for the model analytes. The linear dynamic range was 5.0-3.0 × 10³ ng L^-1 for all the analytes. Relative standard deviations were between 2 and 11%. In the case of real sample analysis, the extraction recoveries of the analytes were obtained in the range of 77-111%.

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in human breast milk from Colombia: Spatial occurrence, sources and probabilistic risk assessment

The diet is the main route that polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) enter the body and measuring breast milk is one of the best ways to understand the maternal body burden and can be passed on to infants. In this study, it was determinate the concentrations of 23 PAHs in 60 milk samples taken from 3 cities in Colombia and to determine the potential routes of exposure and risk to human health. On average, concentration for the ∑_PAHs across all locations was 186.6 ng g^-1, lipid mass (LM), with city means of 260.1, 175.7, and 123.9 ng g^-1 LM for Cartagena, Bogota and Medellin, respectively. Monte Carlo simulations were used to estimate the hazard quotient (HQ) and incremental lifetime cancer risk (ILCR) for infant dietary exposure to PAHs. HQs were below the safe thresholds (HQ = 1) while ILCRs were greater than the reference value equal to 10^-6 (mg kg^-1day^-1). Dietary source assessment indicated that fish is a significant source of PAHs, with mothers that consumed fish at least once per week having ∼2.5 times greater PAH milk concentrations than other groups. While a disparity was also observed among consumers of exclusively marine (∑_PAHs 198.5 ng g^-1 LM) or freshwater fish (∑_PAHs 85.7 ng g^-1 LM). However, geographical considerations can be significant in this finding.

Epidemiologic evidence of exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and breast cancer: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Breast cancer (BC) is the most frequently diagnosed cancer in women. However, only 58% of cases have been associated with known risk factors (reproductive, hormonal, lifestyles, and genetic), and the rest to unknown causes. Nevertheless, growing evidence suggests that exposure to environmental contaminants is an important risk factor for BC. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are formed during organic matter combustion, including smoking, grilled meat, and fuels, and are important carcinogenic constituents of environmental pollution. We examined the information generated by epidemiological studies evaluating the association between BC and PAHs exposure from multiple sources. Our work was conducted according to Conducting Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses of Observational Studies of Etiology (COSMOS-E) guidelines. We searched PubMed, Web of Science, and Scopus from January 2000 to December 2019. A total of 124 records were identified, and only 23 articles met all inclusion criteria. Occupational and/or environmental exposure to PAHs was significantly associated with BC, irrespective of exposure being assessed by direct or indirect methods. CYP1A1 and CYP1B1 adverse polymorphisms, familial BC history and smoking status, significantly strengthened the association between PAHs exposure and BC, whereas high fruit and vegetable intake had antagonistic associations. The positive relationships obtained in the studies here reviewed indicated that PAHs exposure is a risk factor for BC. Research needs include the improvement of exposure assessment, particularly identification of specific PAHs, reconstruction of time-varying and distant past exposures and further studies on the interaction between known BC factors and modifiable diet and life-style factors allowing BC prevention and control.

The role of adipose tissue analysis on Environmental Pollutants Biomonitoring in women: The European scenario

Humans are exposed every day to assorted environmental pollutants namely, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB), organochlorine pesticides (OCP), brominated flame-retardants (BFR), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), synthetic musks, heavy metals (e.g. cadmium) and plastic additives (e.g. bisphenol A, BPA). Besides environmental persistence, biomagnification and bioaccumulative properties, these pollutants are classified as endocrine disruptors (EDs), metabolic disruptors, neurologic disruptors. These compounds affect the normal function of several mechanisms in the human body being linked to human health issues as cancer development (e.g. breast, uterine and endometrial), miscarriage, birth defects, premature delivery and infertility. In order to prevent future health issue of women and possible progeny, the assessment of EDs accumulated is essential, particularly in adipose tissue. These samples have been referred as the ideal matrix to establish over time accumulation and long-term exposure of persistent and non-persistent lipophilic EDs. However, the invasive sample collection procedure and methodology processing discourages the usage of this matrix for biomonitoring studies. In this review, a Web of Science search without any publishing year restriction on the analysis in adipose tissue of PCB, OCP, BPA, cadmium, BFR and synthetic musks was performed. A total of 313 studies were found, 158 were European studies from which the studies with data on women EDs accumulation were selected for detailed analysis (n = 90). The results were structured and presented in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. The present paper is an overview on the existent EDs analytical methods and levels accumulated in women adipose tissue, with the correspondent health implications across Europe. The limits of detection and quantification were compared and a discussion with results obtained about the presence of ED was performed.

Application of a novel nylon needle filter-based solid-phase extraction device to determination of 1-hydroxypyrene in urine

In this work, a simple and miniaturized solid-phase extraction device was constructed by connecting a commercial nylon needle filter to a syringe, which was applied for extracting 1-hydroxypyrene from urine sample via hydrophobic and hydrogen bond interactions. The nylon membrane in the needle filter acted as the solid-phase extraction adsorbent, meanwhile, it filtered the particles in the urine sample. To obtain high extraction efficiency, key parameters influencing extraction recovery were investigated. The entire pretreatment process was accomplished within 5 min under the optimal conditions. By coupling HPLC-UV, a rapid, low-cost, and convenient nylon needle filter-based method was established for the analysis of 1-hydroxypyrene in complex urine matrix. Within the linearity range of 0.2-1000 μg/L, the method exhibited a satisfactory correlation coefficient (R = 0.9999). The limit of detection was 0.06 μg/L, and the recoveries from urine sample spiked with three concentrations (5, 20, and 100 μg/L) ranged from 105.8% to 113.1% with the relative standard deviations less than 6.7% (intra-day, n = 6) and 8.9% (inter-day, n = 4). Finally, the proposed method was successfully applied for detecting 1-hydroxypyrene in urine samples from college students, smokers, gas station workers, and chip factory workers. The detected concentration in actual urine samples ranged from 0.46 to 5.26 μg/L. Taken together, this simple and cost-effective nylon needle filter-based solid-phase extraction device showed an excellent application potential for pretreating hydrophobic analytes from aqueous samples. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

The potential risks and exposure of Qinling giant pandas to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) pollution

Rapid industrialization and urbanization have created a substantial urban-rural gradient for various pollutants. The Qinling Mountains are highly important in terms of biodiversity, providing habitat for giant pandas, which are endemic to China and are a widely recognized symbol for conservation. Whether polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) exposure risks regarding in situ animal conservation zones are affected by environmental pollution or even enhanced by the mountain-trapping effect requires further research. Our group carried out a large-scale investigation on the area ranging from Xi'an to Hanzhong across the giant panda habitat in the Qinling Mountains by collecting atmosphere, soil, bamboo, and fecal samples from different sites over a two-year period. The total toxicity of atmospheric PAHs and the frequencies of soil PAHs above effect range low (ERL) values showed a decreasing trend from urban areas to the central mountains, suggesting a distance effect from the city. The proportions of total 5- and 6-ring PAHs in the atmosphere were higher in the central mountainous areas than in the urban areas, while this difference was reversed in the soil. Health risk assessments showed that the incremental lifetime carcinogenic risks (ILCR) of PAH exposure by bamboo ingestion ranged from 2.16 × 10^-4 to 3.11 × 10^-4, above the critical level of 10^-4. Bamboo ingestion was the main driver of the PAH exposure risks. The concentration difference between bamboo and fecal samples provided a reference for the level of PAHs absorbed by the panda digestive system. Since the Qinling Mountains possess the highest density of giant pandas and provide habitats to many other endangered animal and plant species, we should not ignore the probability of health risks posed by PAHs. Monitoring the pollution level and reducing the atmospheric emissions of toxic pollutants are recommended actions. Further detailed research should also be implemented on pandas' health effects of contaminant exposure.

Feasibility of supercritical fluid extraction-supercritical fluid chromatography mass spectrometry for the determination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in particulate matter samples

There has been an increased interest in the development of green analytical methods for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in environmental samples due to their toxicity and ubiquitous nature. In this work, the feasibility of on-line supercritical fluid extraction-supercritical fluid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry was investigated for rapid and automated determination of the 16 United States Environmental Protection Agency priority polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in particulate matter samples. Three specialty polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons columns with different stationary phases were screened and an octadecyl-silica column was selected for method development. Enhanced extraction efficiency was achieved using an extraction program with gradient flow rate and gradient concentration of acetonitrile as a modifier. The method was evaluated by analyzing standard reference materials of urban dust and diesel particulate matter from the National Institute of Standards and Technologies. Possible reasons for the unsatisfactory recoveries with certain polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are discussed.

Heart Failure and PAHs, OHPAHs, and Trace Elements Levels in Human Serum: Results from a Preliminary Pilot Study in Greek Population and the Possible Impact of Air Pollution

Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) have been associated with environmental pollutants. The scope of this study is to assess any potential relation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), their hydroxylated derivatives, and trace elements with heart failure via their direct determination in human serum of Greek citizens residing in different areas. Therefore, we analyzed 131 samples including cases (heart failure patients) and controls (healthy donors), and the respective demographic data were collected. Significantly higher concentrations (p < 0.05) were observed in cases' serum regarding most of the examined PAHs and their derivatives with phenanthrene, fluorene, and fluoranthene being the most abundant (median of >50 μg L-1). Among the examined trace elements, As, Cd, Cu, Hg, Ni, and Pb were measured at statistically higher concentrations (p < 0.05) in cases' samples, with only Cr being significantly higher in controls. The potential impact of environmental factors such as smoking and area of residence has been evaluated. Specific PAHs and trace elements could be possibly related with heart failure development. Atmospheric degradation and smoking habit appeared to have a significant impact on the analytes' serum concentrations. PCA-logistic regression analysis could possibly reveal common mechanisms among the analytes enhancing the hypothesis that they may pose a significant risk for CVD development.

Polycyclic aromatic compounds (PACs) in the Canadian environment: A review of sampling techniques, strategies and instrumentation

A wide variety of sampling techniques and strategies are needed to analyze polycyclic aromatic compounds (PACs) and interpret their distributions in various environmental media (i.e., air, water, snow, soils, sediments, peat and biological material). In this review, we provide a summary of commonly employed sampling methods and strategies, as well as a discussion of routine and innovative approaches used to quantify and characterize PACs in frequently targeted environmental samples, with specific examples and applications in Canadian investigations. The pros and cons of different analytical techniques, including gas chromatography - flame ionization detection (GC-FID), GC low-resolution mass spectrometry (GC-LRMS), high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with ultraviolet, fluorescence or MS detection, GC high-resolution MS (GC-HRMS) and compound-specific stable (δ¹³C, δ²H) and radiocarbon (Δ¹⁴C) isotope analysis are considered. Using as an example research carried out in Canada's Athabasca oil sands region (AOSR), where alkylated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and sulfur-containing dibenzothiophenes are frequently targeted, the need to move beyond the standard list of sixteen EPA priority PAHs and for adoption of an AOSR bitumen PAC reference standard are highlighted.

Distribution, Composition, Sources, and Potential Ecological Risks of PAHs in the Sediments of the Lanzhou Reach of the Yellow River, China

The distribution, composition, sources, and potential ecological risks of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the sediments of the Lanzhou Reach of the Yellow River, China were investigated. The total concentration of the 18 individual PAHs (∑₁₈PAHs) in the sediments ranged from 638 to 1620 ng/g, with a mean value of 901 ng/g. The pollution level of PAHs in the sediments was low to moderate. Spatially, the distribution of PAHs in the sediments showed an increasing trend along the direction of water flow. ∑₁₈PAHs predominantly consisted of low molecular weight PAHs. The principal component analysis and isomer ratios of PAHs suggested the mixed sources of petroleum and those from the combustion of petroleum, coal, and biomass. The results showed that the PAHs in the sediments of the Lanzhou Reach of the Yellow River have a low ecological risk. However, the BaP equivalent exposure values suggested a potential cancer risk.

The tale of a versatile enzyme: Alpha-amylase evolution, structure, and potential biotechnological applications for the bioremediation of n-alkanes

As the primary source of a wide range of industrial products, the study of petroleum-derived compounds is of pivotal importance. However, the process of oil extraction and refinement is among the most environmentally hazardous practices, impacting almost all levels of the ecological chain. So far, the most appropriate strategy to overcome such an issue is through bioremediation, which revolves around the employment of different microorganisms to degrade hazardous compounds, generating less environmental impact and lower monetary costs. In this sense, a myriad of organisms and enzymes are considered possible candidates for the bioremediation process. Amidst the potential candidates is α-amylase, an evolutionary conserved starch-degrading enzyme. Notably, α-amylase was not only seen to degrade n-alkanes, a subclass of alkanes considered the most abundant petroleum-derived compounds but also low-density polyethylene, a dangerous pollutant produced from petroleum. Thus, due to its high conservation in both eukaryotic and prokaryotic lineages, in addition to the capability to degrade different types of hazardous compounds, the study of α-amylase becomes a rising interest. Nevertheless, there are no studies that review all biotechnological applications of α-amylase for bioremediation. In this work, we critically review the potential biotechnological applications of α-amylase, focusing on the biodegradation of petroleum-derived compounds. Evolutionary aspects are discussed, as well for all structural information and all features that could impact on the employment of this protein in the biotechnological industry, such as pH, temperature, and medium conditions. New perspectives and critical assessments are conducted regarding the application of α-amylase in the bioremediation of n-alkanes.

Fast magnetic solid-phase extraction using an Fe3O4-NH2@MOF material for monohydroxy polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in urine of coke-oven workers

In this work, a magnetic material (Fe3O4-NH2@MIL-101) was successfully prepared, and the material was used as a sorbent for the magnetic solid-phase extraction (MSPE) of trace level monohydroxy polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (OH-PAHs) from urine samples for the first time. The target analytes were quantified by high performance liquid chromatography coupled with fluorescence detection (HPLC-FLD). The MSPE key factors, which include the amount of adsorbent, extraction time, pH, the effect of salt, eluting solutions and eluant volume, were systematically optimized. Under the optimized conditions, the developed method showed good linearity (0.03-200 ng mL-1), low limits of detection (0.016-0.042 ng mL-1, signal-to-noise ratio = 3) and satisfactory repeatability (relative standard deviation ≤ 10.1%, n = 5). The method showed stable average recoveries ranging from 78.3% to 112.9% and the enrichment factors were 9 to 15. Besides the satisfactory method parameters, the total MPSE process could be completed in no more than 5 minutes. These results indicated that Fe3O4-NH2@MOF based MSPE was a simple, efficient and fast method which was suitable for MSPE of OH-PAHs from urine samples.

Simultaneous Quantification of Multiple Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Aqueous Media using Micelle Assisted White Light Excitation Fluorescence

Qualitative and quantitative display of multiple fluorescent analytes is made simple and reliable in this micelle assisted methodology. The adopted method involves micelle assisted evincing of ppb level of PAHs in water; measurement of total fluorescence (white light excitation fluorescence, WLEF) and data deciphering using multivariate analysis. This protocol yields sensitive and accurate quantification of the cancerous pollutants (PAHs) in aqueous media with Limit of Quantification of the order 1-10 μg/L and accuracy of >98%. The use of WLEF enables the simultaneous acquisition of fluorescence signatures of all the PAHs. It has the additional advantage of being portable, layman-friendly and cost-effective. The optimized amount of surfactants for the simultaneous extraction of PAHs from real samples was estimated as 27.8 mg (19.3 mM) of SDS and 9.1 mg (5 mM) of CTAB. Also, the analytical fidelity of the quantification such as percentage recovery (98 ± 2%), linear dynamic range (2-250 μg/L), RMSEP (<0.5), etc. explains the veracity of methodology.

Poly(lauryl methacrylate)-Grafted Amino-Functionalized Zirconium-Terephthalate Metal-Organic Framework: Efficient Adsorbent for Extraction of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons from Water Samples

In this study, a novel porous hybrid material, poly(lauryl methacrylate) polymer-grafted UiO-66-NH₂ (UiO = University of Oslo), was synthesized for efficient extraction of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) from aqueous samples. The polymer end-tethered covalently to the MOF's surface was synthesized by surface-initiated atom transfer radical polymerization, revealing a distinct type of morphology. The adsorbent was characterized by scanning electron microscopy, energy-dispersive spectroscopy, transmission electron microscopy, powder X-ray diffraction, N₂ adsorption-desorption analysis, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and thermogravimetric analysis. The analyses were carried out by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Parameters including the type and volume of the eluent, the amount of the adsorbent, and adsorption and desorption times were investigated and optimized. Under optimal conditions, the limit of detection, intraday precision, and interday precision were in the range of 3-8 ng L^-1, 1.4-3.1, and 4.1-6.5%, respectively. The procedure was used for analysis of PAHs from natural water samples.

Review of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in fish and fisheries products; a Sri Lankan perspective

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are emerging as important contaminants in smoked and smoke-dried fish and fish products. The smoking techniques and different parameters contribute to the PAH load in smoked fish. This review paper provides insight into the PAHs and their sources and pathways to fish, effects on human health, smoking parameters and PAHs, regulations, available information, gaps in present knowledge, and future prospects in smoked fish from Sri Lanka. Based on the very few available research reports on PAH levels in smoked fish from Sri Lanka, it is concluded that the smoked fish are not safe for human consumption according to the regulation limits published by the European Union (EU). It is therefore important to implement proper guidelines and produce a safe product to ensure that hazards are managed as appropriate Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP). Graphical abstract.

Remediation of pyrene contaminated soil by double dielectric barrier discharge plasma technology: Performance optimization and evaluation

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in soil are not only detrimental to environment but also to human health. Double dielectric barrier discharge (DDBD) plasma reactor used for the remediation of pyrene contaminated soil was studied. The performance of DDBD reactor was optimized with influential parameters including applied voltage, type of carrier gas, air feeding rate as well as pyrene initial concentration. The analysis of variance (ANOVA) results showed that input energy had a great effect on pyrene remediation efficiency followed by pyrene initial concentration, while, the effect of air feeding rate was insignificant. More specifically, the remediation efficiency of pyrene under air, nitrogen and argon as carrier gas were approximately 79.7, 40.7 and 38.2% respectively. Pyrene remediation efficiency is favored at high level of applied voltages and low level of pyrene initial concentration (10 mgkg^-1) and air feeding rate (0.85 L/min). Moreover, computation of the energy efficiency of the DDBD system disclosed that an optimal applied voltage (35.8 kV) and higher initial pyrene concentration (200 mgkg^-1) favored the high energy efficiency. A regression model predicting pyrene remediation under DDBD plasma condition was developed using the data from a face-centered central composite design (FCCD) experiment. Finally, the residual toxicity analysis depicted that the respiratory activity increased more than 21 times (from 0.04 to 0.849 mg O₂ g^-1) with a pyrene remediation efficiency of 81.1%. The study demonstrated the DDBD plasma technology is a promising method not only for high efficiency of pyrene remediation, but also recovering biological function without changing the physical-chemical properties of soil.

Critical review of micro-extraction techniques used in the determination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in biological, environmental and food samples

Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) are ubiquitous environmental contaminants and their accurate determination is very important to human health and environment safety. In this review, sorptive-based micro-extraction techniques [such as Solid-Phase Micro-extraction (SPME), Stir Bar Sorptive Extraction (SBSE), Micro-extraction in Packed Sorbent (MEPS)] and solvent-based micro-extraction [Membrane-Mediated Liquid-Phase Micro-extraction (MM-LPME), Dispersive Liquid-Liquid Micro-extraction (DLLME), and Single Drop Micro-extraction (SDME)] developed for quantification of PAHs in environmental, biological and food samples are reviewed. Moreover, recent micro-extraction techniques that have been coupled with other sample extraction strategies are also briefly discussed. The main objectives of these micro-extraction techniques are to perform extraction, pre-concentration and clean up together as one step, and the reduction of the analysis time, cost and solvent following the green chemistry guidelines.

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in bays of the Rio de Janeiro state coast, SE - Brazil: Effects on catfishes

The Brazilian coast of the Rio de Janeiro State has bays of great economic, ecological and social importance. However, these ecosystems have been suffering intense anthropogenic influence, mainly due to the contamination by polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) from urban-industrial activities. Moreover, PAHs are organic pollutants of high toxicity and carcinogenicity causing global concern to human and environmental health. This study evaluated on catfish (Genidens genidens) a set of key parameters (sex, morphometric traits, condition factor (K), PAH metabolites in gallbladder, frequency of micronucleus (MN) and erythrocytic nuclear abnormalities (ENA) in blood. In addition we also evaluated histopathological hepatic effects, Ethoxyresorufin-O-deethylase (EROD) activity and Benzo(a)pyrene diol epoxide (BPDE)-DNA adducts) in liver samples, in order to indicate the fish health status and environmental pollution levels of three main Bays (Guanabara, Sepetiba and Ilha Grande) of the Rio de Janeiro State, in the Southeast of Brazil. In general, the worst physical and metabolic conditions in catfishes were evidenced in Guanabara Bay, possibly indicating the highest level of contamination by PAHs. Contrary evidence was observed in Ilha Grande Bay, showing lower biological changes in G. genidens. However in Sepetiba Bay, the influence of PAHs contamination showed the highest hepatic lesions in catfishes, prevailing foci of cellular alterations, megalocytic hepatosis and hydropic vacuolations. The employability of a set of biomarkers on catfish was efficient for screening pollution for PAHs in tropical environments. This reinforces the need for effective actions of monitoring and conservation strategies of bays of the Rio de Janeiro State (Brazil), in order to ensure quality and health to both human and environment.

Adsorption Behavior of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons on Zn-Based Coordination Cluster Zn5: Competition, Synergy, and Mechanism

In this work, adsorption behaviors of pyrene (PYR), fluoranthene (FLT), phenanthrene (PHE), and fluorene (FLU) on the coordination cluster [Zn₅(H₂Lⁿ)₆](NO₃)₄]·8H₂O·2CH₃OH (Zn₅) were studied. The adsorption mechanism and spectrum analyses revealed that the synergistic effect of hydrophobic interaction, π-π stacking, and N-H···π interaction played a crucial role during the adsorption process. The maximum adsorption capacities of PYR, FLT, PHE, and FLU were 406.4, 399.7, 153.7, and 114.3 mg g^-1, respectively, resulting from the Langmuir isotherm model. Quick removal of PYR and FLT was found in kinetic experiments with the adsorption equilibrium being reached within 1 min. Competitive adsorption indicated that the adsorption sites for PYR, FLT, PHE, and FLU on Zn₅ were identical, and synergistic effects also existed in the adsorption process. Therefore, Zn₅ has the potential to be used as an adsorbent in the field of wastewater treatment.

Determination of Urinary Hydroxyl PAHs Using Graphene Oxide@Diatomite Based Solid-Phase Extraction and High-Performance Liquid Chromatography

A diatomite supported graphene oxide composite (GO@Dt–NH₂) was fabricated and explored as a solid-phase extraction adsorbent coupled with high performance liquid chromatography to determine the trace hydroxyl polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (2-hydroxy-naphthalene, 2-hydroxy-fluorene, 1-hydroxy-phenanthrene, and 1-hydroxy-pyrene) in urine samples. The fabricated composites were characterized by X-ray powder diffractometry and scanning electron microscopy. GO@Dt–NH₂ offered enhanced adsorption affinity towards the analytes compared with the bare diatomite. The amount of graphene oxide and the factors affecting solid-phase extraction were investigated in detail. Under the optimized conditions, the method gave good linearity (0.30–200 ng/mL) and a low detection limit (0.10–0.15 ng/mL) for the hydroxyl polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. The average recovery for spiked urine samples with three levels ranged from 90.6% to 100%. The intra-day and inter-day relative standard deviations were in the range of 1.8–6.4% and 2.7–11.8%, respectively. Besides, the GO@Dt–NH₂ provided enrichment factors of 18–20 and superior purification ability. The developed method was successfully applied to the determination of hydroxyl polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in urine samples from smoking volunteers.