1
|
Senefeld JW, Gorman EK, Johnson PW, Moir ME, Klassen SA, Carter RE, Paneth NS, Sullivan DJ, Morkeberg OH, Wright RS, Fairweather D, Bruno KA, Shoham S, Bloch EM, Focosi D, Henderson JP, Juskewitch JE, Pirofski LA, Grossman BJ, Tobian AA, Franchini M, Ganesh R, Hurt RT, Kay NE, Parikh SA, Baker SE, Buchholtz ZA, Buras MR, Clayburn AJ, Dennis JJ, Diaz Soto JC, Herasevich V, Klompas AM, Kunze KL, Larson KF, Mills JR, Regimbal RJ, Ripoll JG, Sexton MA, Shepherd JR, Stubbs JR, Theel ES, van Buskirk CM, van Helmond N, Vogt MN, Whelan ER, Wiggins CC, Winters JL, Casadevall A, Joyner MJ. Rates Among Hospitalized Patients With COVID-19 Treated With Convalescent Plasma: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Mayo Clin Proc Innov Qual Outcomes 2023; 7:499-513. [PMID: 37859995 PMCID: PMC10582279 DOI: 10.1016/j.mayocpiqo.2023.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Objective To examine the association of COVID-19 convalescent plasma transfusion with mortality and the differences between subgroups in hospitalized patients with COVID-19. Patients and Methods On October 26, 2022, a systematic search was performed for clinical studies of COVID-19 convalescent plasma in the literature from January 1, 2020, to October 26, 2022. Randomized clinical trials and matched cohort studies investigating COVID-19 convalescent plasma transfusion compared with standard of care treatment or placebo among hospitalized patients with confirmed COVID-19 were included. The electronic search yielded 3841 unique records, of which 744 were considered for full-text screening. The selection process was performed independently by a panel of 5 reviewers. The study followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines. Data were extracted by 5 independent reviewers in duplicate and pooled using an inverse-variance random effects model. The prespecified end point was all-cause mortality during hospitalization. Results Thirty-nine randomized clinical trials enrolling 21,529 participants and 70 matched cohort studies enrolling 50,160 participants were included in the systematic review. Separate meta-analyses reported that transfusion of COVID-19 convalescent plasma was associated with a decrease in mortality compared with the control cohort for both randomized clinical trials (odds ratio [OR], 0.87; 95% CI, 0.76-1.00) and matched cohort studies (OR, 0.76; 95% CI, 0.66-0.88). The meta-analysis of subgroups revealed 2 important findings. First, treatment with convalescent plasma containing high antibody levels was associated with a decrease in mortality compared with convalescent plasma containing low antibody levels (OR, 0.85; 95% CI, 0.73 to 0.99). Second, earlier treatment with COVID-19 convalescent plasma was associated with a decrease in mortality compared with the later treatment cohort (OR, 0.63; 95% CI, 0.48 to 0.82). Conclusion During COVID-19 convalescent plasma use was associated with a 13% reduced risk of mortality, implying a mortality benefit for hospitalized patients with COVID-19, particularly those treated with convalescent plasma containing high antibody levels treated earlier in the disease course.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jonathon W. Senefeld
- Department of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN
- Department of Kinesiology and Community Health, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL
| | - Ellen K. Gorman
- Department of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN
| | - Patrick W. Johnson
- Department of Quantitative Health Sciences, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL
| | - M. Erin Moir
- Department of Kinesiology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison
| | - Stephen A. Klassen
- Department of Kinesiology, Brock University, St. Catharines, Ontario, Canada
| | - Rickey E. Carter
- Department of Quantitative Health Sciences, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL
| | - Nigel S. Paneth
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics and Department of Pediatrics and Human Development, Michigan State University, East Lansing
| | - David J. Sullivan
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, ML
| | - Olaf H. Morkeberg
- Department of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN
| | - R. Scott Wright
- Human Research Protection Program, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN
| | | | - Katelyn A. Bruno
- Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL
- Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville
| | - Shmuel Shoham
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD
| | - Evan M. Bloch
- Department of Pathology Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, ML
| | - Daniele Focosi
- North-Western Tuscany Blood Bank, Pisa University Hospital, Italy
| | - Jeffrey P. Henderson
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, MO
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, MO
| | | | - Liise-Anne Pirofski
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Albert Einstein College of Medicine and Montefiore Medical Center, Bronx, NY
| | - Brenda J. Grossman
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, MO
| | - Aaron A.R. Tobian
- Department of Pathology Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, ML
| | - Massimo Franchini
- Division of Transfusion Medicine, Carlo Poma Hospital, Mantua, Italy
| | - Ravindra Ganesh
- Department of General Internal Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN
| | - Ryan T. Hurt
- Department of General Internal Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN
| | - Neil E. Kay
- Division of Hematology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN
- Department of Immunology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN
| | | | - Sarah E. Baker
- Department of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN
| | - Zachary A. Buchholtz
- Department of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN
| | - Matthew R. Buras
- Department of Quantitative Health Sciences, Mayo Clinic, Scottsdale, AZ
| | - Andrew J. Clayburn
- Department of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN
| | - Joshua J. Dennis
- Department of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN
| | - Juan C. Diaz Soto
- Department of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN
| | - Vitaly Herasevich
- Department of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN
| | - Allan M. Klompas
- Department of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN
| | - Katie L. Kunze
- Department of Quantitative Health Sciences, Mayo Clinic, Scottsdale, AZ
| | | | - John R. Mills
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN
| | - Riley J. Regimbal
- Department of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN
| | - Juan G. Ripoll
- Department of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN
| | - Matthew A. Sexton
- Department of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN
| | - John R.A. Shepherd
- Department of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN
| | - James R. Stubbs
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN
| | - Elitza S. Theel
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN
| | | | - Noud van Helmond
- Department of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN
| | - Matthew N.P. Vogt
- Department of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN
| | - Emily R. Whelan
- Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL
| | - Chad C. Wiggins
- Department of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN
| | - Jeffrey L. Winters
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN
| | - Arturo Casadevall
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, ML
| | - Michael J. Joyner
- Department of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Pratedrat P, Intharasongkroh D, Chansaenroj J, Vichaiwattana P, Srimuan D, Thatsanatorn T, Klinfueng S, Nilyanimit P, Chirathaworn C, Kupatawintu P, Chaiwanichsiri D, Wanlapakorn N, Poovorawan Y. Dynamics of Cytokine, SARS-CoV-2-Specific IgG, and Neutralizing Antibody Levels in COVID-19 Patients Treated with Convalescent Plasma. Diseases 2023; 11:112. [PMID: 37754308 PMCID: PMC10527804 DOI: 10.3390/diseases11030112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2023] [Revised: 08/27/2023] [Accepted: 08/29/2023] [Indexed: 09/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a contagious illness worldwide. While guidelines for the treatment of COVID-19 have been established, the understanding of the relationship among neutralizing antibodies, cytokines, and the combined use of antiviral medications, steroid drugs, and convalescent plasma therapy remains limited. Here, we investigated the connection between the immunological response and the efficacy of convalescent plasma therapy in COVID-19 patients with moderate-to-severe pneumonia. The study included a retrospective analysis of 49 patients aged 35 to 57. We conducted clinical assessments to determine antibody levels, biochemical markers, and cytokine levels. Among the patients, 48 (98%) were discharged, while one died. We observed significantly higher levels of anti-nucleocapsid, anti-spike, and neutralizing antibodies on days 3, 7, and 14 after the transfusion compared to before treatment. Serum CRP and D-dimer levels varied significantly across these four time points. Moreover, convalescent plasma therapy demonstrated an immunoregulatory effect on cytokine parameters, with significant differences in IFN-β, IL-6, IL-10, and IFN-α levels observed at different sampling times. Evaluating the cytokine signature, along with standard clinical and laboratory parameters, may help to identify the onset of a cytokine storm in COVID-19 patients and determine the appropriate indication for anti-cytokine treatment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Pornpitra Pratedrat
- Center of Excellence in Clinical Virology, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand; (P.P.); (J.C.); (P.V.); (D.S.); (T.T.); (S.K.); (P.N.); (N.W.)
- Department of Basic Medical Science, Faculty of Medicine Vajira Hospital, Navamindradhiraj University, Bangkok 10300, Thailand
| | | | - Jira Chansaenroj
- Center of Excellence in Clinical Virology, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand; (P.P.); (J.C.); (P.V.); (D.S.); (T.T.); (S.K.); (P.N.); (N.W.)
| | - Preeyaporn Vichaiwattana
- Center of Excellence in Clinical Virology, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand; (P.P.); (J.C.); (P.V.); (D.S.); (T.T.); (S.K.); (P.N.); (N.W.)
| | - Donchida Srimuan
- Center of Excellence in Clinical Virology, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand; (P.P.); (J.C.); (P.V.); (D.S.); (T.T.); (S.K.); (P.N.); (N.W.)
| | - Thaksaporn Thatsanatorn
- Center of Excellence in Clinical Virology, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand; (P.P.); (J.C.); (P.V.); (D.S.); (T.T.); (S.K.); (P.N.); (N.W.)
| | - Sirapa Klinfueng
- Center of Excellence in Clinical Virology, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand; (P.P.); (J.C.); (P.V.); (D.S.); (T.T.); (S.K.); (P.N.); (N.W.)
| | - Pornjarim Nilyanimit
- Center of Excellence in Clinical Virology, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand; (P.P.); (J.C.); (P.V.); (D.S.); (T.T.); (S.K.); (P.N.); (N.W.)
| | - Chintana Chirathaworn
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand;
| | - Pawinee Kupatawintu
- National Blood Centre, Thai Red Cross Society, Bangkok 10330, Thailand; (D.I.); (P.K.); (D.C.)
| | - Dootchai Chaiwanichsiri
- National Blood Centre, Thai Red Cross Society, Bangkok 10330, Thailand; (D.I.); (P.K.); (D.C.)
| | - Nasamon Wanlapakorn
- Center of Excellence in Clinical Virology, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand; (P.P.); (J.C.); (P.V.); (D.S.); (T.T.); (S.K.); (P.N.); (N.W.)
| | - Yong Poovorawan
- Center of Excellence in Clinical Virology, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand; (P.P.); (J.C.); (P.V.); (D.S.); (T.T.); (S.K.); (P.N.); (N.W.)
- Royal Society of Thailand (FRS(T)), Sanam Sueapa, Dusit, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Kandula UR, Tuji TS, Gudeta DB, Bulbula KL, Mohammad AA, Wari KD, Abbas A. Effectiveness of COVID-19 Convalescent Plasma (CCP) During the Pandemic Era: A Literature Review. J Blood Med 2023; 14:159-187. [PMID: 36855559 PMCID: PMC9968437 DOI: 10.2147/jbm.s397722] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2022] [Accepted: 02/08/2023] [Indexed: 02/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Worldwide pandemic with coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19) was caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2). As November 2, 2022, World Health Organization (WHO) received 628,035,553 reported incidents on COVID-19, with 6,572,800 mortalities and, with a total 12,850,970,971 vaccine doses have been delivered as of October 31, 2022. The infection can cause mild or self-limiting symptoms of pulmonary and severe infections or death may be caused by SARS-CoV-2 infection. Simultaneously, antivirals, corticosteroids, immunological treatments, antibiotics, and anticoagulants have been proposed as potential medicines to cure COVID-19 affected patients. Among these initial treatments, COVID-19 convalescent plasma (CCP), which was retrieved from COVID-19 recovered patients to be used as passive immune therapy, in which antibodies from cured patients were given to infected patients to prevent illness. Such treatment has yielded the best results in earlier with preventative or early stages of illness. Convalescent plasma (CP) is the first treatment available when infectious disease initially appears, although few randomized controlled trials (RCTs) were conducted to evaluate its effectiveness. The historical record suggests with potential benefit for other respiratory infections, as coronaviruses like Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome-CoV-I (SARS-CoV-I) and Middle Eastern Respiratory Syndrome (MERS), though the analysis of such research is constrained by some non-randomized experiments (NREs). Rigorous studies on CP are made more demanding by the following with the immediacy of the epidemics, CP use may restrict the ability to utilize it for clinical testing, non-homogenous nature of product, highly decentralized manufacturing process; constraints with capacity to measure biologic function, ultimate availability of substitute therapies, as antivirals, purified immune globulins, or monoclonal antibodies. Though, it is still not clear how effectively CCP works among hospitalized COVID-19 patients. The current review tries to focus on its efficiency and usage in clinical scenarios and identifying existing benefits of implementation during pandemic or how it may assist with future pandemic preventions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Usha Rani Kandula
- Department of Nursing, College of Health Sciences, Arsi University, Asella, Ethiopia
| | - Techane Sisay Tuji
- Department of Nursing, College of Health Sciences, Arsi University, Asella, Ethiopia
| | | | - Kassech Leta Bulbula
- Department of Nursing, College of Health Sciences, Arsi University, Asella, Ethiopia
| | | | - Ketema Diriba Wari
- Department of Nursing, College of Health Sciences, Arsi University, Asella, Ethiopia
| | - Ahmad Abbas
- Department of Nursing, College of Health Sciences, Arsi University, Asella, Ethiopia
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Peng Y, Yang W, Zhou Y, Fei D, Kang K, Meng X, Zhao M, Liu X, Yu S, Luan F, Ma X, Jia X, Mu W, Wang C, Yu K. Clinical characteristics and severity of beta and delta variants of SARS-CoV-2 and the effect of vaccine on delta variants. Heliyon 2022; 8:e12594. [PMID: 36590565 PMCID: PMC9789541 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e12594] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2022] [Revised: 10/14/2022] [Accepted: 12/15/2022] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The Delta variant of concern (VOC) is rapidly becoming the dominant strain globally. We report the clinical characteristics and severity of hospitalized patients infected with Delta and Beta VOCs during the local outbreak in Harbin, Heilongjiang Province, China, and the effect of vaccines on the Delta variant. Methods We collected a total of 735 COVID-19 patients from the First Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University, including 96 cases infected with the Delta VOC and 639 cases infected with the Beta VOC. Demographic, clinical characteristic and laboratory findings were collected and compared. Results Differences in viral shedding, IgG and IgM levels, and the neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio were noted between the Delta and Beta VOCs (p < 0.05). Survival analysis of the two groups revealed longer viral shedding of the Delta VOC (p < 0.05). For the Delta VOC, the longer the vaccination period, the lower the IgG and IgM levels. IgM levels were higher in the convalescent plasma group, whereas lymphocyte counts were lower. Conclusions Delta VOC virus shedding was longer compared with Beta VOC shedding. Vaccination with inactivated vaccines can reduce the severe illness rate of the Delta VOC. IgG and IgM levels are reduced as the time period between the first and second vaccine doses increases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yahui Peng
- Department of Critical Care Medicine, First Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University, Harbin, Heilongjiang Province 150001, China
| | - Wei Yang
- Department of Critical Care Medicine, First Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University, Harbin, Heilongjiang Province 150001, China
| | - Yuxin Zhou
- Department of Critical Care Medicine, Cancer Hospital of Harbin Medical University, Harbin, Heilongjiang Province 150081, China
| | - Dongsheng Fei
- Department of Critical Care Medicine, First Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University, Harbin, Heilongjiang Province 150001, China
| | - Kai Kang
- Department of Critical Care Medicine, First Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University, Harbin, Heilongjiang Province 150001, China
| | - Xianglin Meng
- Department of Critical Care Medicine, First Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University, Harbin, Heilongjiang Province 150001, China
| | - Mingyan Zhao
- Department of Critical Care Medicine, First Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University, Harbin, Heilongjiang Province 150001, China
| | - Xiaomin Liu
- Respiratory Department, First Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University, Harbin, Heilongjiang Province, 150001, China
| | - Shihuan Yu
- Respiratory Department, First Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University, Harbin, Heilongjiang Province, 150001, China
| | - Feiyu Luan
- Surgical Emergency, First Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University, Harbin, Heilongjiang Province, 150001, China
| | - Xiaohui Ma
- Department of Critical Care Medicine, First Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University, Harbin, Heilongjiang Province 150001, China
| | - Xiaonan Jia
- Department of Critical Care Medicine, First Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University, Harbin, Heilongjiang Province 150001, China
| | - Wenjing Mu
- Department of Critical Care Medicine, Cancer Hospital of Harbin Medical University, Harbin, Heilongjiang Province 150081, China
| | - Changsong Wang
- Department of Critical Care Medicine, First Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University, Harbin, Heilongjiang Province 150001, China,Department of Critical Care Medicine, Cancer Hospital of Harbin Medical University, Harbin, Heilongjiang Province 150081, China,Corresponding author.
| | - Kaijiang Yu
- Department of Critical Care Medicine, First Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University, Harbin, Heilongjiang Province 150001, China,Corresponding author.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Chakraborty C, Sharma AR, Bhattacharya M, Lee SS. A Detailed Overview of Immune Escape, Antibody Escape, Partial Vaccine Escape of SARS-CoV-2 and Their Emerging Variants With Escape Mutations. Front Immunol 2022; 13:801522. [PMID: 35222380 PMCID: PMC8863680 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.801522] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 36.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2021] [Accepted: 01/05/2022] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The infective SARS-CoV-2 is more prone to immune escape. Presently, the significant variants of SARS-CoV-2 are emerging in due course of time with substantial mutations, having the immune escape property. Simultaneously, the vaccination drive against this virus is in progress worldwide. However, vaccine evasion has been noted by some of the newly emerging variants. Our review provides an overview of the emerging variants' immune escape and vaccine escape ability. We have illustrated a broad view related to viral evolution, variants, and immune escape ability. Subsequently, different immune escape approaches of SARS-CoV-2 have been discussed. Different innate immune escape strategies adopted by the SARS-CoV-2 has been discussed like, IFN-I production dysregulation, cytokines related immune escape, immune escape associated with dendritic cell function and macrophages, natural killer cells and neutrophils related immune escape, PRRs associated immune evasion, and NLRP3 inflammasome associated immune evasion. Simultaneously we have discussed the significant mutations related to emerging variants and immune escape, such as mutations in the RBD region (N439K, L452R, E484K, N501Y, K444R) and other parts (D614G, P681R) of the S-glycoprotein. Mutations in other locations such as NSP1, NSP3, NSP6, ORF3, and ORF8 have also been discussed. Finally, we have illustrated the emerging variants' partial vaccine (BioNTech/Pfizer mRNA/Oxford-AstraZeneca/BBIBP-CorV/ZF2001/Moderna mRNA/Johnson & Johnson vaccine) escape ability. This review will help gain in-depth knowledge related to immune escape, antibody escape, and partial vaccine escape ability of the virus and assist in controlling the current pandemic and prepare for the next.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chiranjib Chakraborty
- Department of Biotechnology, School of Life Science and Biotechnology, Adamas University, Kolkata, India
| | - Ashish Ranjan Sharma
- Institute for Skeletal Aging and Orthopedic Surgery, Hallym University-Chuncheon Sacred Heart Hospital, Chuncheon-si, South Korea
| | | | - Sang-Soo Lee
- Institute for Skeletal Aging and Orthopedic Surgery, Hallym University-Chuncheon Sacred Heart Hospital, Chuncheon-si, South Korea
| |
Collapse
|