The vital signs of chronic disease management

Effectiveness of a Nurse-Led Tele-Homecare Program for Patients With Multiple Chronic Illnesses and a High Risk for Readmission: A Randomized Controlled Trial

PURPOSE

Multiple chronic illnesses, such as those associated with advanced age, are leading causes of poor health, disability, death, and high healthcare expenditures. Tele-homecare is a novel method for providing home care to patients with chronic illnesses. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of an integrated nurse-led tele-homecare program for patients with multiple chronic illnesses and a high risk for readmission.

DESIGN

A randomized controlled trial.

METHODS

Two hundred patients from a regional hospital who were scheduled to receive home care after discharge were randomly assigned to the intervention group (n = 100) or the control group (n = 100). The patients in the intervention group participated in an integrated tele-homecare program. For outcome evaluation, primary outcomes included the number of emergency department (ED) visits as well as readmittance and mortality. Secondary outcomes included patients' medication adherence, activities of daily living, health status, and quality of life (QOL). Data were collected at three time points: pretest baseline (T0), 3 months after intervention (T3), and 6 months after intervention (T6). A generalized estimating equation model was used to compare changes and evaluate the effect of differences between the two groups over time.

FINDINGS

For primary outcome evaluation, we found that the tele-homecare program significantly reduced mortality and ED visits, whereas no significant effect on readmission was observed. For secondary outcome evaluation, patients' QOL indicated significant improvement.

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE

The nurse-led tele-homecare program involves daily 24-hr remote monitoring and surveillance. In this study, the system detected patients' physical changes early and provided timely and appropriate management, consequently reducing ED visits and mortality. Additionally, it improved patients' QOL. On the basis of our findings, nurses' independent roles and functions revealed that the effectiveness of this nurse-led tele-homecare program strengthened the care of patients with multiple chronic illnesses.

Early experiences integrating hypertension and diabetes screening and treatment in a human immunodeficiency virus clinic in Malawi

Background

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) programmes can be leveraged to manage the growing burden of non-communicable diseases (NCDs).

Methods

In October 2015, a model of integrated HIV-NCD care was developed at a large HIV clinic in southeast Malawi. Blood pressure was measured in adults at every visit and random blood glucose was determined every 2 y. Uncomplicated antiretroviral therapy (ART)-only care was provided by nurses, integrated HIV-NCD management was provided by clinical officers. Waiting times were assessed using the electronic medical record system. The team met monthly to identify bottlenecks.

Results

All (n=6036) adult HIV patients were screened and 765 were diagnosed with hypertension (prevalence 12.7% [95% confidence interval {CI} 11.9-13.5). A total of 2979 adult HIV patients were screened and 25 were diagnosed with diabetes mellitus (prevalence 0.8% [95% CI 0.6-1.2]). The mean duration of ART visits by clinical officers increased from 80.5 to 90 min during the first quarter following HIV-NCD integration but returned to 75 min the following quarter. The mean number of patients seen per day by clinical officers increased from 6 to 11 and for nurses decreased from 92 to 82 in that time period. The robust vertical HIV system made the design of integrated tools demanding. Challenges of integrated HIV-NCD care were related to patient flow, waiting times, NCD drug availability, data collection, clinic workload and the timing of diabetes and hypertension screening.

Conclusions

Integrated HIV-NCD services provision was feasible in our clinic.

Adapting HIV patient and program monitoring tools for chronic non-communicable diseases in Ethiopia

BACKGROUND

Chronic non-communicable diseases (NCDs) have become a huge public health concern in developing countries. Many resource-poor countries facing this growing epidemic, however, lack systems for an organized and comprehensive response to NCDs. Lack of NCD national policy, strategies, treatment guidelines and surveillance and monitoring systems are features of health systems in many developing countries. Successfully responding to the problem requires a number of actions by the countries, including developing context-appropriate chronic care models and programs and standardization of patient and program monitoring tools.

METHODS

In this cross-sectional qualitative study we assessed existing monitoring and evaluation (M&E) tools used for NCD services in Ethiopia. Since HIV care and treatment program is the only large-scale chronic care program in the country, we explored the M&E tools being used in the program and analyzed how these tools might be adapted to support NCD services in the country. Document review and in-depth interviews were the main data collection methods used. The interviews were held with health workers and staff involved in data management purposively selected from four health facilities with high HIV and NCD patient load. Thematic analysis was employed to make sense of the data.

RESULTS

Our findings indicate the apparent lack of information systems for NCD services, including the absence of standardized patient and program monitoring tools to support the services. We identified several HIV care and treatment patient and program monitoring tools currently being used to facilitate intake process, enrolment, follow up, cohort monitoring, appointment keeping, analysis and reporting. Analysis of how each tool being used for HIV patient and program monitoring can be adapted for supporting NCD services is presented.

CONCLUSION

Given the similarity between HIV care and treatment and NCD services and the huge investment already made to implement standardized tools for HIV care and treatment program, adaptation and use of HIV patient and program monitoring tools for NCD services can improve NCD response in Ethiopia through structuring services, standardizing patient care and treatment, supporting evidence-based planning and providing information on effectiveness of interventions.

The Effectiveness of Interventions for Non-Communicable Diseases in Humanitarian Crises: A Systematic Review

Background

Non-communicable diseases (NCDs) are of increasing concern in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) affected humanitarian crises. Humanitarian agencies and governments are increasingly challenged with how to effectively tackle NCDs. Reviewing the evidence of interventions for NCDs in humanitarian crises can help guide future policies and research by identifying effective interventions and evidence gaps. The aim of this paper is to systematically review evidence on the effectiveness of interventions targeting NCDs during humanitarian crises in LMICs.

Methods

A systematic review methodology was followed using PRISMA standards. Studies were selected on NCD interventions with civilian populations affected by humanitarian crises in low- and middle-income countries. Five bibliographic databases and a range of grey literature sources were searched. Descriptive analysis was applied and a quality assessment conducted using the Newcastle-Ottawa Quality Assessment Scale for observational studies and the Cochrane Risk of Bias Tool for experimental studies.

Results

The search yielded 4919 references of which 8 studies met inclusion criteria. Seven of the 8 studies were observational, and one study was a non-blinded randomised-controlled trial. Diseases examined included hypertension, heart failure, diabetes mellitus, chronic kidney disease, thalassaemia, and arthritis. Study settings included locations in the Middle East, Eastern Europe, and South Asia. Interventions featuring disease-management protocols and/or cohort monitoring demonstrated the strongest evidence of effectiveness. No studies examined intervention costs. The quality of studies was limited, with a reliance on observational study designs, limited use of control groups, biases associated with missing data and inadequate patient-follow-up, and confounding was poorly addressed.

Conclusions

The review highlights the extremely limited quantity and quality of evidence on this topic. Interventions that incorporate standardisation and facilitate patient follow-up appear beneficial. However, substantially more research is needed, including data on costs.

Diabetes mellitus and treatment outcomes in Palestine refugees in UNRWA primary health care clinics in Jordan

SETTING

Six primary health care clinics in Jordan, serving Palestine refugees diagnosed with diabetes mellitus (DM).

OBJECTIVES

To report on the number and characteristics of new DM patients registered in the second quarter of 2013 and of all DM patients ever registered by 30 June 2013, with treatment outcomes and cumulative burden of late-stage complications.

DESIGN

A descriptive cohort study using routine data collected through e-Health.

RESULTS

Of the 288 new patients in Q2 2013 and 12 548 patients ever registered with DM by 30 June 2013, smoking, physical inactivity and obesity were recorded in 19%, 50% and 47%, respectively. In Q2 2013, 9740 (78%) patients attended a clinic, with >99% having undergone disease control measures: of these, 72% had postprandial blood glucose ⩽ 180 mg/dl, 71% had blood cholesterol < 200 mg/dl, 82% had blood pressure < 140/90 and 40% had body mass index < 30 kg/m(2). Late-stage complications were present in 1130 (11.6%) patients who attended a clinic, with cardiovascular disease and stroke being the most common. Several differences in outcomes were found between males and females.

CONCLUSION

There is a high burden of disease due to DM at primary health care clinics in Jordan. Cohort analysis using e-Health is a vital way to assess management and follow-up.

Diabetes care in refugee camps: the experience of UNRWA

United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA) was established in 1949 and has delivered health care services for over 65 years. The epidemiological transition in disease burden is changing the context in which UNRWA's health programme operates and poses new challenges that require new ways of providing health services. Hypertension and diabetes are two major health problems for Palestine refugees. UNRWA has been providing diabetes and hypertension care since 1992 in its primary health care centres. Of late, through a structured process of care delivery the UNRWA health system is making significant strides in addressing diabetes and hypertension and consequently the nine voluntary global targets as envisaged in the WHO Global Action Plan for the Prevention and Control of NCDs 2013-2020. Given that most developing countries either have no or only rudimentary services for diabetes and hypertension at the primary care level and may face similar resource and capacity constraints, UNRWA's efforts can serve as a model and inspiration to set up similar initiatives.

Cohort monitoring - as a tool to improve diabetes care services

The need to stem the rising tide of non-communicable diseases (NCDs) including diabetes has been recognised at the highest levels through the UN political declaration. Diabetes care services are largely unavailable in the primary care setting in most developing countries and where available the services are unstructured, with poor record keeping, stock outs and frequent disruption in supplies. With no systematic monitoring of care and programme implementation, treatment outcomes are poor and are consequently associated with a high economic burden. Systematic evaluation of programmes through cohort monitoring has been shown to be effective in large-scale interventions for two chronic infectious diseases-tuberculosis and HIV/AIDS. Can the same simple tool of cohort monitoring be applied to improve diabetes care delivery in the developing world? Pilot projects show it is possible, but scale up and expansion would require investment in information technology. In a scenario where systems for NCD are just beginning to be set up, it makes sense to learn from and build further on the initial pilot programmes.

The International Union Against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease: past, present and future

The International Union Against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease (The Union) is the oldest international non-governmental organization involved in the fight against tuberculosis. This review documents the history and structure of The Union up to 2009, and describes the achievements that have taken place in the field of tuberculosis and lung health. The progress made in tackling the major killer (pneumonia) of children less than 5 years of age, the barrier to affordable essential asthma medicines, the complex issue of tobacco control, the move into the realm of HIV and AIDS, and new ideas and activities around the increasingly important domain of operational research are described and discussed. Finally, as with many institutions that have seen a rapid phase of growth, expansion and decentralisation to regional offices around the world, the review highlights the internal strategic initiative that aims to fine-tune the organisational structure, clarify lines of authority, create more efficient business, human resource and financial systems and revise, where necessary, The Union's guiding mission, vision and values for the future.

Impact of definitions of loss to follow-up on estimates of retention, disease progression, and mortality: application to an HIV program in Mozambique

Patient retention is critical to the management of chronic diseases such as human immunodeficiency virus (HIV); hence, accurate measures of loss to follow-up (LTF) are important. Many different LTF definitions have been proposed. In a cohort of 9,692 HIV-infected patients initiating antiretroviral therapy in Mozambique from 2006 to 2011, we investigated the impact of the definition of LTF on estimated rates of LTF, acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS)-defining events, and death by applying 17 different definitions of LTF gleaned from HIV literature. We further investigated the impact of 4 specific components of the LTF definitions. Cumulative incidences of LTF and AIDS-defining events were estimated by treating death as a competing risk; Kaplan-Meier techniques and variations to account for informative censoring were used to estimate rates of mortality. Estimates of LTF 2 years after treatment initiation were high and varied substantially, from 22% to 84% depending on the LTF definition used. Estimates of 2-year mortality varied from 11% to 16%, and estimates of 2-year AIDS-defining events varied from 6% to 8%. As seen here, the choice of LTF definition can greatly affect study conclusions and program evaluations. Selection of LTF definitions should be based on the study outcome, available data on clinical encounters, and the patients' visit schedules; we suggest some general guidelines.

The double burden of diabetes and tuberculosis - public health implications

Diabetes mellitus (DM) and tuberculosis (TB) have existed for thousands of years and even now the global disease burden from DM and TB is huge. The incidence of TB is declining slowly but it still remains a big problem in many populous large low and middle income countries. On the other, hand the burden of diabetes is increasing very rapidly, particularly in the very same countries where TB is endemic. The intersecting double burden is therefore ominous particularly as several studies and systematic reviews have indicated that DM increases the risk of TB disease and results in poor treatment outcomes. To address the double burden, WHO and the International Union Against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease (The Union) in 2011 launched a collaborative framework for the care and control of diabetes and tuberculosis, to encourage collaborative research and implement bidirectional screening of the two diseases in routine settings. This review article (i) explores some of the new evidence for the association between TB and DM, (ii) discusses issues with regard to clinical presentation and outcomes, (iii) presents the evidence, challenges and strategies for bidirectional screening based on field studies to implement the framework and (iv) finally presents suggestions on how diabetes care delivery may benefit from the lessons of the TB DOTS approach and public health principles for structured care delivery.

High loss to follow-up following obstetric fistula repair surgery in rural Burundi: is there a way forward?

SETTING

Gitega Fistula Centre (GFC), a dedicated obstetric fistula repair centre providing comprehensive care at the Gitega District Hospital, rural Burundi.

OBJECTIVES

To describe 1) the proportion who returned for scheduled 3- and 6-month follow-up visits and 2) outcomes (fistula closure rates and continence status) at discharge from hospital and after 3 and 6 months among patients who underwent fistula repair surgery.

DESIGN

Retrospective cohort analysis using programme data from April 2010 to December 2011.

RESULTS

A total of 475 women with obstetric fistula underwent surgical repair. At discharge from hospital, 415 (87%) had a closed fistula, of whom 318 (77%) were continent of urine and/or faeces, while 97 (23%) remained incontinent despite closure. Of the 415 patients with closed fistula, only 244 (59%) were followed up at 3 months and 73 (18%) at 6 months (χ(2) for linear trend 576, P < 0.0001). This indicates progressive loss to follow-up, reaching 82% by 6 months.

CONCLUSION

Women undergoing obstetric fistula repair surgery at GFC achieve good hospital exit outcomes. Thereafter, substantial and progressive loss to follow-up hinder the ability to judge programme success over time. Steps to address this operational problem are discussed.

Cohort monitoring of persons with diabetes mellitus in a primary healthcare clinic for Palestine refugees in Jordan

OBJECTIVE

To illustrate the method of cohort reporting of persons with diabetes mellitus (DM) in a primary healthcare clinic in Amman, Jordan, serving Palestine refugees with the aim of improving quality of DM care services.

METHOD

A descriptive study using quarterly and cumulative case findings, as well as cumulative and 12-month analyses of cohort outcomes collected through E-Health in UNRWA Nuzha Primary Health Care Clinic.

RESULTS

There were 55 newly registered patients with DM in quarter 1, 2012, and a total of 2851 patients with DM ever registered on E-Health because this was established in 2009. By 31 March 2012, 70% of 2851 patients were alive in care, 18% had failed to present to a healthcare worker in the last 3 months and the remainder had died, transferred out or were lost to follow-up. Cumulative and 12-month cohort outcome analysis indicated deficiencies in several components of clinical care: measurement of blood pressure, annual assessments for foot care and blood tests for glucose, cholesterol and renal function. 10-20% of patients with DM in the different cohorts had serious late complications such as blindness, stroke, cardiovascular disease and amputations.

CONCLUSION

Cohort analysis provides data about incidence and prevalence of DM at the clinic level, clinical management performance and prevalence of serious morbidity. It needs to be more widely applied for the monitoring and management of non-communicable chronic diseases.

Why reinvent the wheel? Leveraging the lessons of HIV scale-up to confront non-communicable diseases

The dramatic scale-up of HIV services in lower-income countries has led to the development of service delivery models reflecting the specific characteristics of HIV and its treatment as well as local contexts and cultures. Given the shared barriers and challenges faced by health programmes in lower-income countries, many of the implementation approaches developed for HIV programmes have the potential to contribute to the continuity care framework needed to address non-communicable diseases (NCDs) in resource-limited settings. HIV programmes are, in fact, the first large-scale chronic disease programmes in many countries, offering local and effective tools, models and approaches that can be replicated, adapted and expanded. As such, they might be used to 'jumpstart' the development of initiatives to provide prevention, care and treatment services for NCDs and other chronic conditions.

Applying lessons learnt from the 'DOTS' Tuberculosis Model to monitoring and evaluating persons with diabetes mellitus in Blantyre, Malawi

The global burden of diabetes mellitus (DM) is immense and predicted to reach 438 million by 2030, with 80% of the cases being in the developing world. The management of chronic non-communicable diseases like DM is poor in most resource-limited settings, and the 'directly observed therapy, short course' (DOTS) framework for tuberculosis control has been proposed as a feasible way to improve this situation. In late 2009, aspects of the DOTS model were applied to the management of persons with DM in the diabetes clinic in Queen Elizabeth Central Hospital, Blantyre, Malawi, and a point-of-care electronic medical record system was set up to support and monitor patients in care. This is the first quarterly and cumulative report of persons with DM registered for care stratified by treatment outcomes, complications and medication history up to 31 December 2010. There were 170 new patients registered between October and December 2010, with 1864 ever registered by 31 December 2010. Most patients were alive and in care; 3 died, 53 defaulted and 3 transferred out. Of those on oral hypoglycaemic agents, metformin was most commonly used. Complications were common. The monitoring and evaluation will be further refined, and at the same time, the systems developed in Blantyre will be expanded to other parts of the country.

Prevention and management of chronic disease: a litmus test for health-systems strengthening in low-income and middle-income countries

National health systems need strengthening if they are to meet the growing challenge of chronic diseases in low-income and middle-income countries. By application of an accepted health-systems framework to the evidence, we report that the factors that limit countries' capacity to implement proven strategies for chronic diseases relate to the way in which health systems are designed and function. Substantial constraints are apparent across each of the six key health-systems components of health financing, governance, health workforce, health information, medical products and technologies, and health-service delivery. These constraints have become more evident as development partners have accelerated efforts to respond to HIV, tuberculosis, malaria, and vaccine-preventable diseases. A new global agenda for health-systems strengthening is arising from the urgent need to scale up and sustain these priority interventions. Most chronic diseases are neglected in this dialogue about health systems, despite the fact that non-communicable diseases (most of which are chronic) will account for 69% of all global deaths by 2030 with 80% of these deaths in low-income and middle-income countries. At the same time, advocates for action against chronic diseases are not paying enough attention to health systems as part of an effective response. Efforts to scale up interventions for management of common chronic diseases in these countries tend to focus on one disease and its causes, and are often fragmented and vertical. Evidence is emerging that chronic disease interventions could contribute to strengthening the capacity of health systems to deliver a comprehensive range of services-provided that such investments are planned to include these broad objectives. Because effective chronic disease programmes are highly dependent on well-functioning national health systems, chronic diseases should be a litmus test for health-systems strengthening.

Health transition in Africa: practical policy proposals for primary care

Sub-Saharan Africa is undergoing health transition as increased globalization and accompanying urbanization are causing a double burden of communicable and noncommunicable diseases. Rates of communicable diseases such as HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis and malaria in Africa are the highest in the world. The impact of noncommunicable diseases is also increasing. For example, age-standardized mortality from cardiovascular disease may be up to three times higher in some African than in some European countries. As the entry point into the health service for most people, primary care plays a key role in delivering communicable disease prevention and care interventions. This role could be extended to focus on noncommunicable diseases as well, within the context of efforts to strengthen health systems by improving primary-care delivery. We put forward practical policy proposals to improve the primary-care response to the problems posed by health transition: (i) improving data on communicable and noncommunicable diseases; (ii) implementing a structured approach to the improved delivery of primary care; (iii) putting the spotlight on quality of clinical care; (iv) aligning the response to health transition with health system strengthening; and (v) capitalizing on a favourable global policy environment. Although these proposals are aimed at primary care in sub-Saharan Africa, they may well be relevant to other regions also facing the challenges of health transition. Implementing these proposals requires action by national and international alliances in mobilizing the necessary investments for improved health of people in developing countries in Africa undergoing health transition.

Defining the research agenda to reduce the joint burden of disease from diabetes mellitus and tuberculosis

The steadily growing epidemic of diabetes mellitus poses a threat for global tuberculosis (TB) control. Previous studies have identified an important association between diabetes mellitus and TB. However, these studies have limitations: very few were carried out in low-income countries, with none in Africa, raising uncertainty about the strength of the diabetes mellitus-TB association in these settings, and many critical questions remain unanswered. An expert meeting was held in November 2009 to discuss where there was sufficient evidence to make firm recommendations about joint management of both diseases, to address research gaps and to develop a research agenda. Ten key research questions were identified, of which 4 were selected as high priority: (i) whether, when and how to screen for TB in patients with diabetes mellitus and vice versa; (ii) the impact of diabetes mellitus and non-diabetes mellitus hyperglycaemia on TB treatment outcomes and deaths, and the development of strategies to improve outcomes; (iii) implementation and evaluation of the tuberculosis 'DOTS' model for diabetes mellitus management; and (iv) the development and evaluation of better point-of-care diagnostic and monitoring tests, including measurements of blood glucose and glycated haemoglobin A(1c) (HbA(1c)) for patients with diabetes mellitus. Implementation of this research agenda will benefit the control of both diseases.

A global framework for action to improve the primary care response to chronic non-communicable diseases: a solution to a neglected problem

Background

Although in developing countries the burden of morbidity and mortality due to infectious diseases has often overshadowed that due to chronic non-communicable diseases (NCDs), there is evidence now of a shift of attention to NCDs.

Discussion

Decreasing the chronic NCD burden requires a two-pronged approach: implementation of the multisectoral policies aimed at decreasing population-level risks for NCDs, and effective and affordable delivery of primary care interventions for patients with chronic NCDs. The primary care response to common NCDs is often unstructured and inadequate. We therefore propose a programmatic, standardized approach to the delivery of primary care interventions for patients with NCDs, with a focus on hypertension, diabetes mellitus, chronic airflow obstruction, and obesity. The benefits of this approach will extend to patients with related conditions, e.g. those with chronic kidney disease caused by hypertension or diabetes. This framework for a "public health approach" is informed by experience of scaling up interventions for chronic infectious diseases (tuberculosis and HIV). The lessons learned from progress in rolling out these interventions include the importance of gaining political commitment, developing a robust strategy, delivering standardised interventions, and ensuring rigorous monitoring and evaluation of progress towards defined targets.

The goal of the framework is to reduce the burden of morbidity, disability and premature mortality related to NCDs through a primary care strategy which has three elements: 1) identify and address modifiable risk factors, 2) screen for common NCDs and 3) and diagnose, treat and follow-up patients with common NCDs using standard protocols. The proposed framework for NCDs borrows the same elements as those developed for tuberculosis control, comprising a goal, strategy and targets for NCD control, a package of interventions for quality care, key operations for national implementation of these interventions (political commitment, case-finding among people attending primary care services, standardised diagnostic and treatment protocols, regular drug supply, and systematic monitoring and evaluation), and indicators to measure progress towards increasing the impact of primary care interventions on chronic NCDs. The framework needs evaluation, then adaptation in different settings.

Summary

A framework for a programmatic "public health approach" has the potential to improve on the current unstructured approach to primary care of people with chronic NCDs. Research to establish the cost, value and feasibility of implementing the framework will pave the way for international support to extend the benefit of this approach to the millions of people worldwide with chronic NCDs.