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Campo M, Dill-McFarland KA, Peterson GJ, Benson B, Skerrett SJ, Hawn TR. Human Alveolar and Monocyte-Derived Human Macrophage Responses to Mycobacterium tuberculosis. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2024; 213:161-169. [PMID: 38836816 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.2300885] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2023] [Accepted: 04/29/2024] [Indexed: 06/06/2024]
Abstract
Alveolar macrophages (AMs) and recruited monocyte-derived macrophages (MDMs) mediate early lung immune responses to Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Differences in the response of these distinct cell types are poorly understood and may provide insight into mechanisms of tuberculosis pathogenesis. The objective of this study was to determine whether M. tuberculosis induces unique and essential antimicrobial pathways in human AMs compared with MDMs. Using paired human AMs and 5-d MCSF-derived MDMs from six healthy volunteers, we infected cells with M. tuberculosis H37Rv for 6 h, isolated RNA, and analyzed transcriptomic profiles with RNA sequencing. We found 681 genes that were M. tuberculosis dependent in AMs compared with MDMs and 4538 that were M. tuberculosis dependent in MDMs, but not AMs (false discovery rate [FDR] < 0.05). Using hypergeometric enrichment of DEGs in Broad Hallmark gene sets, we found that type I and II IFN Response were the only gene sets selectively induced in M. tuberculosis-infected AM (FDR < 0.05). In contrast, MYC targets, unfolded protein response and MTORC1 signaling, were selectively enriched in MDMs (FDR < 0.05). IFNA1, IFNA8, IFNE, and IFNL1 were specifically and highly upregulated in AMs compared with MDMs at baseline and/or after M. tuberculosis infection. IFNA8 modulated M. tuberculosis-induced proinflammatory cytokines and, compared with other IFNs, stimulated unique transcriptomes. Several DNA sensors and IFN regulatory factors had higher expression at baseline and/or after M. tuberculosis infection in AMs compared with MDMs. These findings demonstrate that M. tuberculosis infection induced unique transcriptional responses in human AMs compared with MDMs, including upregulation of the IFN response pathway and specific DNA sensors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monica Campo
- Department of Medicine, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN
| | | | | | - Basilin Benson
- Systems Immunology Program, Benaroya Research Institute, Seattle, WA
| | | | - Thomas R Hawn
- Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA
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2
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Dill-McFarland KA, Simmons JD, Peterson GJ, Nguyen FK, Campo M, Benchek P, Stein CM, Vaisar T, Mayanja-Kizza H, Boom WH, Hawn TR. Epigenetic programming of host lipid metabolism associates with resistance to TST/IGRA conversion after exposure to Mycobacterium tuberculosis. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.02.27.582348. [PMID: 38464296 PMCID: PMC10925331 DOI: 10.1101/2024.02.27.582348] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/12/2024]
Abstract
Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) exposure leads to a range of outcomes including clearance, latent TB infection (LTBI), and pulmonary tuberculosis (TB). Some heavily exposed individuals resist tuberculin skin test (TST) and interferon gamma release assay (IGRA) conversion (RSTR), which suggests that they employ IFNγ-independent mechanisms of Mtb control. Here, we compare monocyte epigenetic profiles of RSTR and LTBI from a Ugandan household contact cohort. Chromatin accessibility did not differ between uninfected RSTR and LTBI monocytes. In contrast, methylation significantly differed at 174 CpG sites and across 63 genomic regions. Consistent with previous transcriptional findings in this cohort, differential methylation was enriched in lipid and cholesterol associated pathways including in the genes APOC3, KCNQ1, and PLA2G3. In addition, methylation was enriched in Hippo signaling, which is associated with cholesterol homeostasis and includes CIT and SHANK2. Lipid export and Hippo signaling pathways were also associated with gene expression in response to Mtb in RSTR as well as IFN stimulation in monocyte-derived macrophages (MDMs) from an independent healthy donor cohort. Moreover, serum-derived HDL from RSTR had elevated ABCA1-mediated cholesterol efflux capacity (CEC) compared to LTBI. Our findings suggest that resistance to TST/IGRA conversion is linked to regulation of lipid accumulation in monocytes, which could facilitate early Mtb clearance among RSTR subjects through IFNγ-independent mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jason D Simmons
- Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | | | - Felicia K Nguyen
- Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Monica Campo
- Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Penelope Benchek
- Department of Population and Quantitative Health Sciences, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
| | - Catherine M Stein
- Department of Population and Quantitative Health Sciences, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
- Department of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
| | - Tomas Vaisar
- Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | | | - W Henry Boom
- Department of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
| | - Thomas R Hawn
- Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
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3
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Zhao L, Fan K, Sun X, Li W, Qin F, Shi L, Gao F, Zheng C. Host-directed therapy against mycobacterium tuberculosis infections with diabetes mellitus. Front Immunol 2024; 14:1305325. [PMID: 38259491 PMCID: PMC10800548 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1305325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2023] [Accepted: 12/11/2023] [Indexed: 01/24/2024] Open
Abstract
Tuberculosis (TB) is caused by the bacterial pathogen Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB) and is one of the principal reasons for mortality and morbidity worldwide. Currently, recommended anti-tuberculosis drugs include isoniazid, rifampicin, ethambutol, and pyrazinamide. TB treatment is lengthy and inflicted with severe side-effects, including reduced patient compliance with treatment and promotion of drug-resistant strains. TB is also prone to other concomitant diseases such as diabetes and HIV. These drug-resistant and complex co-morbid characteristics increase the complexity of treating MTB. Host-directed therapy (HDT), which effectively eliminates MTB and minimizes inflammatory tissue damage, primarily by targeting the immune system, is currently an attractive complementary approach. The drugs used for HDT are repositioned drugs in actual clinical practice with relative safety and efficacy assurance. HDT is a potentially effective therapeutic intervention for the treatment of MTB and diabetic MTB, and can compensate for the shortcomings of current TB therapies, including the reduction of drug resistance and modulation of immune response. Here, we summarize the state-of-the-art roles and mechanisms of HDT in immune modulation and treatment of MTB, with a special focus on the role of HDT in diabetic MTB, to emphasize the potential of HDT in controlling MTB infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Zhao
- Department of Tuberculosis III, Wuhan Pulmonary Hospital, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Ke Fan
- Department of Tuberculosis III, Wuhan Pulmonary Hospital, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Xuezhi Sun
- Department of Tuberculosis III, Wuhan Pulmonary Hospital, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Wei Li
- Department of Tuberculosis III, Wuhan Pulmonary Hospital, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Fenfen Qin
- Department of Tuberculosis III, Wuhan Pulmonary Hospital, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Liwen Shi
- Department of Tuberculosis III, Wuhan Pulmonary Hospital, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Feng Gao
- Department of Endocrinology, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Chunlan Zheng
- Department of Tuberculosis III, Wuhan Pulmonary Hospital, Wuhan, Hubei, China
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Zhou W, Zeng D, Liu S, Huang Y, Lv F, Zhou W. Histone deacetylase 3 inhibition alleviates 2,4-dinitrochlorobenzene-induced atopic dermatitis via epigenetically upregulating Nrf2/HO-1 signaling pathway. Int Immunopharmacol 2024; 126:111107. [PMID: 37992448 DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2023.111107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2023] [Revised: 10/12/2023] [Accepted: 10/19/2023] [Indexed: 11/24/2023]
Abstract
Atopic dermatitis (AD) is a frequent skin disorder that is associated with immune dysfunction and skin inflammation. Histone deacetylase 3 (HDAC3) possesses strong immune and inflammatory modulatory properties in multiple diseases. However, the role and mechanism of HDAC3 in AD remain unknown. Here, we reported that HDAC3 expression was aberrantly upregulated in 2,4-dinitrochlorobenzene (DNCB)-induced lesional AD skin in mice. Inhibition of HDAC3 by RGFP966 protected against DNCB-induced AD, indicated by improved histological damages, relieved inflammatory and immune dysfunction. Nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2)/heme oxygenase 1 (HO-1) signaling pathway activity in lesional AD skin was significantly decreased and RGFP966 attenuated the decrease. Inhibition of Nrf2/HO-1 signaling pathway via Nrf2 inhibitor ML385 blunted anti-AD effect of RGFP966 in DNCB-treated mice. Mechanistically, RGFP966 promoted Nrf2 expression and upregulated H3K27ac deposition on the promoter region of Nrf2. Collectively, HDAC3 inhibition protects against AD via epigenetically activating Nrf2 transcription to upregulate Nrf2/HO-1 signaling pathway activity. HDAC3 may act as a promising therapeutic target for the treatment of AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Zhou
- Key Laboratory of Biorheological Science and Technology (Chongqing University), Ministry of Education, Chongqing 400045, China; Department of Allergy, Chongqing General Hospital, Chongqing 400014, China
| | - Dan Zeng
- Department of Allergy, Chongqing General Hospital, Chongqing 400014, China.
| | - Shunan Liu
- Department of Allergy, Chongqing General Hospital, Chongqing 400014, China
| | - Yunxia Huang
- Department of Allergy, Chongqing General Hospital, Chongqing 400014, China
| | - Fenglin Lv
- Key Laboratory of Biorheological Science and Technology (Chongqing University), Ministry of Education, Chongqing 400045, China
| | - Weikang Zhou
- Department of Allergy, Chongqing General Hospital, Chongqing 400014, China.
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Rodríguez-Carlos A, Jacobo-Delgado Y, Santos-Mena AO, García-Hernández MH, De Jesus-Gonzalez LA, Lara-Ramirez EE, Rivas-Santiago B. Histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitors- based drugs are effective to control Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection and promote the sensibility for rifampicin in MDR strain. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 2023; 118:e230143. [PMID: 38126492 PMCID: PMC10740574 DOI: 10.1590/0074-02760230143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2023] [Accepted: 11/30/2023] [Indexed: 12/23/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Tuberculosis (TB) is a major public health problem, which has been aggravated by the alarming growth of drug-resistant tuberculosis. Therefore, the development of a safer and more effective treatment is needed. OBJECTIVES The aim of this work was repositioning and evaluate histone deacetylases (HDAC) inhibitors- based drugs with potential antimycobacterial activity. METHODS Using an in silico pharmacological repositioning strategy, three molecules that bind to the catalytic site of histone deacetylase were selected. Pneumocytes type II and macrophages were infected with Mycobacterium tuberculosis and treated with pre-selected HDAC inhibitors (HDACi). Subsequently, the ability of each of these molecules to directly promote the elimination of M. tuberculosis was evaluated by colony-forming unit (CFU)/mL. We assessed the expression of antimicrobial peptides and respiratory burst using reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR). FINDINGS Aminoacetanilide (ACE), N-Boc-1,2-phenylenediamine (N-BOC), 1,3-Diphenylurea (DFU), reduce bacillary loads in macrophages and increase the production of β-defensin-2, LL-37, superoxide dismutase (SOD) 3 and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS). While only the use of ACE in type II pneumocytes decreases the bacterial load through increasing LL-37 expression. Furthermore, the use of ACE and rifampicin inhibited the survival of intracellular multi-drug resistance M. tuberculosis. MAIN CONCLUSIONS Our data support the usefulness of in silico approaches for drug repositioning to provide a potential adjunctive therapy for TB.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adrián Rodríguez-Carlos
- Medical Research Unit-Zacatecas, Mexican Institute for Social Security-IMSS, Zacatecas, Mexico
| | - Yolanda Jacobo-Delgado
- Medical Research Unit-Zacatecas, Mexican Institute for Social Security-IMSS, Zacatecas, Mexico
| | | | | | | | - Edgar E Lara-Ramirez
- Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Centro de Biotecnología Genómica, Laboratorio de Biotecnología Farmacéutica, Reynosa, Mexico
| | - Bruno Rivas-Santiago
- Medical Research Unit-Zacatecas, Mexican Institute for Social Security-IMSS, Zacatecas, Mexico
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Singh PR, Dadireddy V, Udupa S, Kalladi SM, Shee S, Khosla S, Rajmani RS, Singh A, Ramakumar S, Nagaraja V. The Mycobacterium tuberculosis methyltransferase Rv2067c manipulates host epigenetic programming to promote its own survival. Nat Commun 2023; 14:8497. [PMID: 38129415 PMCID: PMC10739865 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-43940-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2023] [Accepted: 11/24/2023] [Indexed: 12/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Mycobacterium tuberculosis has evolved several mechanisms to counter host defense arsenals for its proliferation. Here we report that M. tuberculosis employs a multi-pronged approach to modify host epigenetic machinery for its survival. It secretes methyltransferase (MTase) Rv2067c into macrophages, trimethylating histone H3K79 in a non-nucleosomal context. Rv2067c downregulates host MTase DOT1L, decreasing DOT1L-mediated nucleosomally added H3K79me3 mark on pro-inflammatory response genes. Consequent inhibition of caspase-8-dependent apoptosis and enhancement of RIPK3-mediated necrosis results in increased pathogenesis. In parallel, Rv2067c enhances the expression of SESTRIN3, NLRC3, and TMTC1, enabling the pathogen to overcome host inflammatory and oxidative responses. We provide the structural basis for differential methylation of H3K79 by Rv2067c and DOT1L. The structures of Rv2067c and DOT1L explain how their action on H3K79 is spatially and temporally separated, enabling Rv2067c to effectively intercept the host epigenetic circuit and downstream signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Prakruti R Singh
- Department of Microbiology & Cell Biology, Indian Institute of Science (IISc), Bengaluru, India
- Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research (JNCASR), Bengaluru, India
| | | | - Shubha Udupa
- Department of Microbiology & Cell Biology, Indian Institute of Science (IISc), Bengaluru, India
| | - Shashwath Malli Kalladi
- Department of Microbiology & Cell Biology, Indian Institute of Science (IISc), Bengaluru, India
| | - Somnath Shee
- Centre for Infectious Disease Research (CIDR), Department of Microbiology and Cell Biology, Indian Institute of Science (IISc), Bengaluru, India
| | - Sanjeev Khosla
- Council of Scientific and Industrial Research-Institute of Microbial Technology, Chandigarh (CSIR -IMTech), Chandigarh, India
| | - Raju S Rajmani
- Centre for Infectious Disease Research (CIDR), Department of Microbiology and Cell Biology, Indian Institute of Science (IISc), Bengaluru, India
| | - Amit Singh
- Centre for Infectious Disease Research (CIDR), Department of Microbiology and Cell Biology, Indian Institute of Science (IISc), Bengaluru, India
| | | | - Valakunja Nagaraja
- Department of Microbiology & Cell Biology, Indian Institute of Science (IISc), Bengaluru, India.
- Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research (JNCASR), Bengaluru, India.
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7
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Wei M, Qin Y, Qian K, Shang S, Zhao Y, Xie T, Xi J, Tang B. Class Ⅰ histone deacetylase inhibitor regulate of Mycobacteria-Driven guanylate-binding protein 1 gene expression. Microb Pathog 2022; 169:105655. [PMID: 35753598 DOI: 10.1016/j.micpath.2022.105655] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2022] [Revised: 06/16/2022] [Accepted: 06/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Guanylate-binding proteins (GBPs) are a class of interferon (IFN)-stimulated genes with well-established activity against viruses, intracellular bacteria, and parasites. The effect of epigenetic modification on GBP activity upon Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) infection is poorly understood. In this study, we found that Mtb infection can significantly increase the expression of GBPs. Class Ⅰ histone deacetylase inhibitor (HDACi) MS-275 can selectively inhibit GBP1 expression, ultimately affecting the release of inflammatory cytokines IL-1β and suppressing Mtb intracellular survival. Moreover, interfering with GBP1 expression could reduce the production of IL-1β and the level of cleaved-caspase-3 in response to Mtb infection. GBP1 silencing did not affect Mtb survival. Besides, using the bisulfite sequencing PCR, we showed that the CpG site of the GBP1 promoter was hypermethylated, and the methylation status of the GBP1 promoter did not change significantly upon Mtb infection. Overall, this study sheds light on the role of GBP in Mtb infection and provides a link between epigenetics and GBP1 activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meili Wei
- School of Life Science, Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Translational Cancer Research, Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Immunology in Chronic Diseases, Anhui Key Laboratory of Infection and Immunity, Bengbu Medical College, Bengbu, Anhui, 233030, China; Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Local Livestock and Poultry Genetic Resource Conservation and Bio-breeding, College of Animal Science and Technology, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei, 230036, China.
| | - Yuexuan Qin
- School of Life Science, Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Translational Cancer Research, Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Immunology in Chronic Diseases, Anhui Key Laboratory of Infection and Immunity, Bengbu Medical College, Bengbu, Anhui, 233030, China
| | - Kaiqiang Qian
- School of Life Science, Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Translational Cancer Research, Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Immunology in Chronic Diseases, Anhui Key Laboratory of Infection and Immunity, Bengbu Medical College, Bengbu, Anhui, 233030, China
| | - Shengwen Shang
- School of Life Science, Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Translational Cancer Research, Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Immunology in Chronic Diseases, Anhui Key Laboratory of Infection and Immunity, Bengbu Medical College, Bengbu, Anhui, 233030, China
| | - Yongjie Zhao
- School of Life Science, Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Translational Cancer Research, Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Immunology in Chronic Diseases, Anhui Key Laboratory of Infection and Immunity, Bengbu Medical College, Bengbu, Anhui, 233030, China
| | - Tong Xie
- School of Life Science, Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Translational Cancer Research, Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Immunology in Chronic Diseases, Anhui Key Laboratory of Infection and Immunity, Bengbu Medical College, Bengbu, Anhui, 233030, China
| | - Jun Xi
- School of Life Science, Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Translational Cancer Research, Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Immunology in Chronic Diseases, Anhui Key Laboratory of Infection and Immunity, Bengbu Medical College, Bengbu, Anhui, 233030, China
| | - Bikui Tang
- School of Life Science, Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Translational Cancer Research, Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Immunology in Chronic Diseases, Anhui Key Laboratory of Infection and Immunity, Bengbu Medical College, Bengbu, Anhui, 233030, China.
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Abstract
Tuberculosis (TB) remains the leading cause of bacterial disease-related death and is among the top 10 overall causes of death worldwide. The complex nature of this infectious lung disease has proven difficult to treat, and significant research efforts are now evaluating the feasibility of host-directed, adjunctive therapies. An attractive approach in host-directed therapy targets host epigenetics, or gene regulation, to redirect the immune response in a host-beneficial manner. Substantial evidence exists demonstrating that host epigenetics are dysregulated during TB and that epigenetic-based therapies may be highly effective to treat TB. However, the caveat is that much of the knowledge that exists on the modulation of the host epigenome during TB has been gained using in vitro, small-animal, or blood-derived cell models, which do not accurately reflect the pulmonary nature of the disease. In humans, the first and major target cells of Mycobacterium tuberculosis are alveolar macrophages (AM). As such, their response to infection and treatment is clinically relevant and ultimately drives the outcome of disease. In this review, we compare the fundamental differences between AM and circulating monocyte-derived macrophages in the context of TB and summarize the recent advances in elucidating the epigenomes of these cells, including changes to the transcriptome, DNA methylome, and chromatin architecture. We will also discuss trained immunity in AM as a new and emerging field in TB research and provide some perspectives for the translational potential of targeting host epigenetics as an alternative TB therapy.
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Fatima S, Kumari A, Agarwal M, Pahuja I, Yadav V, Dwivedi VP, Bhaskar A. Epigenetic code during mycobacterial infections: therapeutic implications for tuberculosis. FEBS J 2021; 289:4172-4191. [PMID: 34453865 DOI: 10.1111/febs.16170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2021] [Revised: 07/23/2021] [Accepted: 08/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Epigenetics involves changing the gene function without any change in the sequence of the genes. In the case of tuberculosis (TB) infections, the bacilli, Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M.tb), uses epigenetics as a tool to protect itself from the host immune system. TB is a deadly disease-causing maximum death per year due to a single infectious agent. In the case of TB, there is an urgent need for novel host-directed therapies which can effectively target the survival and long-term persistence of the bacteria without developing drug resistance in the bacterial strains while also reducing the duration and toxicity associated with the mainstream anti-TB drugs. Recent studies have suggested that TB infection has a significant effect on the host epigenome thereby manipulating the host immune response in the favor of the pathogen. M.tb alters the activation status of key genes involved in the immune response against TB to promote its survival and subvert the antibacterial strategies of the host. These changes are reversible and can be exploited to design very efficient host-directed therapies to fight against TB. This review has been written with the purpose of discussing the role of epigenetic changes in TB pathogenesis and the therapeutic approaches involving epigenetics, which can be utilized for targeting the pathogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samreen Fatima
- Immunobiology Group, International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, New Delhi, India
| | - Anjna Kumari
- Immunobiology Group, International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, New Delhi, India
| | - Meetu Agarwal
- Department of Biosciences, Jamia Hamdard University, New Delhi, India
| | - Isha Pahuja
- Immunobiology Group, International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, New Delhi, India
| | - Vinod Yadav
- Department of Microbiology, Central University of Haryana, Mahendragarh, India
| | - Ved Prakash Dwivedi
- Immunobiology Group, International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, New Delhi, India
| | - Ashima Bhaskar
- Immunobiology Group, International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, New Delhi, India
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