1
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Yaguchi T, Gabriel MLS, Hashimoto A, Howe JY. In-situ TEM study from the perspective of holders. Microscopy (Oxf) 2024; 73:117-132. [PMID: 37986584 DOI: 10.1093/jmicro/dfad055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2023] [Revised: 09/29/2023] [Accepted: 11/10/2023] [Indexed: 11/22/2023] Open
Abstract
During the in situ transmission electron microscopy (TEM) observations, the diverse functionalities of different specimen holders play a crucial role. We hereby provide a comprehensive overview of the main types of holders, associated technologies and case studies pertaining to the widely employed heating and gas heating methods, from their initial developments to the latest advancement. In addition to the conventional approaches, we also discuss the emergence of holders that incorporate a micro-electro-mechanical system (MEMS) chip for in situ observations. The MEMS technology offers a multitude of functions within a single chip, thereby enhancing the capabilities and versatility of the holders. MEMS chips have been utilized in environmental-cell designs, enabling customized fabrication of diverse shapes. This innovation has facilitated their application in conducting in situ observations within gas and liquid environments, particularly in the investigation of catalytic and battery reactions. We summarize recent noteworthy studies conducted using in situ liquid TEM. These studies highlight significant advancements and provide valuable insights into the utilization of MEMS chips in environmental-cells, as well as the expanding capabilities of in situ liquid TEM in various research domains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Toshie Yaguchi
- Electron Microscope Systems Design Department, Hitachi High-Tech Corporation, 552-53 Shinko-cho, Hitachinaka-shi, Ibaraki-ken 312-8504, Japan
| | - Mia L San Gabriel
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Toronto, 184 College St, Toronto, ON M5S 3E4, Canada
| | - Ayako Hashimoto
- In-situ Electron Microscopy Technique Development Group, National Institute for Materials Science, 1-2-1 Sengen, Tsukuba 305-0047, Japan
- Degree Programs in Pure and Applied Sciences, University of Tsukuba, 1-2-1 Sengen, Tsukuba 305-0047, Japan
| | - Jane Y Howe
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Toronto, 184 College St, Toronto, ON M5S 3E4, Canada
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry, University of Toronto, 200 College St, Toronto, ON M5S 3H6, Canada
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2
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Matsuda J. In situ TEM studies on hydrogen-related issues: hydrogen storage, hydrogen embrittlement, fuel cells and electrolysis. Microscopy (Oxf) 2024; 73:196-207. [PMID: 38102762 DOI: 10.1093/jmicro/dfad060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2023] [Revised: 11/19/2023] [Accepted: 12/12/2023] [Indexed: 12/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Hydrogen is attracting attention as an energy carrier for realizing a low-carbon society, because it can directly convert the energy obtained from chemical reactions into electrical energy without carbon dioxide emissions. This paper presents in situ transmission electron microscopy (TEM) observations related to hydrogen storage in metal and metal hydrides, hydrogen embrittlement of metallic materials used for storing and transporting hydrogen in containers and pipes, and fuel cells and water electrolysis using metal catalysts and oxides as electrode materials. All of these processes are important for practical applications of hydrogen. Numerous in situ TEM studies have revealed the microscopic structural changes when hydrogen reacts with the materials, when hydrogen is solidly dissolved in the materials and during the operation of the material. This review is expected to facilitate further development of TEM operando observations of hydrogen-related materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junko Matsuda
- International Research Center for Hydrogen Energy, Kyushu University, 744 Motooka, Nishi-ku, Fukuoka 819-0395, Japan
- International Institute for Carbon-Neutral Energy Research, Kyushu University, 744 Motooka, Nishi-ku, Fukuoka 819-0395, Japan
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3
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Abdellah AM, Ismail F, Siig OW, Yang J, Andrei CM, DiCecco LA, Rakhsha A, Salem KE, Grandfield K, Bassim N, Black R, Kastlunger G, Soleymani L, Higgins D. Impact of palladium/palladium hydride conversion on electrochemical CO 2 reduction via in-situ transmission electron microscopy and diffraction. Nat Commun 2024; 15:938. [PMID: 38296966 PMCID: PMC10831057 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-45096-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2023] [Accepted: 01/15/2024] [Indexed: 02/02/2024] Open
Abstract
Electrochemical conversion of CO2 offers a sustainable route for producing fuels and chemicals. Pd-based catalysts are effective for converting CO2 into formate at low overpotentials and CO/H2 at high overpotentials, while undergoing poorly understood morphology and phase structure transformations under reaction conditions that impact performance. Herein, in-situ liquid-phase transmission electron microscopy and select area diffraction measurements are applied to track the morphology and Pd/PdHx phase interconversion under reaction conditions as a function of electrode potential. These studies identify the degradation mechanisms, including poisoning and physical structure changes, occurring in PdHx/Pd electrodes. Constant potential density functional theory calculations are used to probe the reaction mechanisms occurring on the PdHx structures observed under reaction conditions. Microkinetic modeling reveals that the intercalation of *H into Pd is essential for formate production. However, the change in electrochemical CO2 conversion selectivity away from formate and towards CO/H2 at increasing overpotentials is due to electrode potential dependent changes in the reaction energetics and not a consequence of morphology or phase structure changes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmed M Abdellah
- Department of Chemical Engineering, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Fatma Ismail
- Department of Chemical Engineering, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Oliver W Siig
- CatTheory, Department of Physics, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Jie Yang
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Carmen M Andrei
- Canadian Centre for Electron Microscopy, McMaster University, Hamilton, Canada
| | | | - Amirhossein Rakhsha
- Department of Chemical Engineering, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Kholoud E Salem
- Department of Chemical Engineering, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Kathryn Grandfield
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
- School of Biomedical Engineering, McMaster University, Hamilton, Canada
| | - Nabil Bassim
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
- Canadian Centre for Electron Microscopy, McMaster University, Hamilton, Canada
| | - Robert Black
- National Research Council of Canada, Energy, Mining, and Environment Research Centre, Mississauga, ON, Canada
| | - Georg Kastlunger
- CatTheory, Department of Physics, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark.
| | - Leyla Soleymani
- School of Biomedical Engineering, McMaster University, Hamilton, Canada
- Department of Engineering Physics, McMaster University, Hamilton, Canada
| | - Drew Higgins
- Department of Chemical Engineering, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada.
- Canadian Centre for Electron Microscopy, McMaster University, Hamilton, Canada.
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4
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Chee SW, Lunkenbein T, Schlögl R, Roldán Cuenya B. Operando Electron Microscopy of Catalysts: The Missing Cornerstone in Heterogeneous Catalysis Research? Chem Rev 2023; 123:13374-13418. [PMID: 37967448 PMCID: PMC10722467 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.3c00352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2023] [Revised: 10/14/2023] [Accepted: 10/20/2023] [Indexed: 11/17/2023]
Abstract
Heterogeneous catalysis in thermal gas-phase and electrochemical liquid-phase chemical conversion plays an important role in our modern energy landscape. However, many of the structural features that drive efficient chemical energy conversion are still unknown. These features are, in general, highly distinct on the local scale and lack translational symmetry, and thus, they are difficult to capture without the required spatial and temporal resolution. Correlating these structures to their function will, conversely, allow us to disentangle irrelevant and relevant features, explore the entanglement of different local structures, and provide us with the necessary understanding to tailor novel catalyst systems with improved productivity. This critical review provides a summary of the still immature field of operando electron microscopy for thermal gas-phase and electrochemical liquid-phase reactions. It focuses on the complexity of investigating catalytic reactions and catalysts, progress in the field, and analysis. The forthcoming advances are discussed in view of correlative techniques, artificial intelligence in analysis, and novel reactor designs.
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Affiliation(s)
- See Wee Chee
- Department
of Interface Science, Fritz-Haber Institute
of the Max-Planck Society, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Thomas Lunkenbein
- Department
of Inorganic Chemistry, Fritz-Haber Institute
of the Max-Planck Society, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Robert Schlögl
- Department
of Interface Science, Fritz-Haber Institute
of the Max-Planck Society, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Beatriz Roldán Cuenya
- Department
of Interface Science, Fritz-Haber Institute
of the Max-Planck Society, 14195 Berlin, Germany
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5
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Altenburger B, Andersson C, Levin S, Westerlund F, Fritzsche J, Langhammer C. Label-Free Imaging of Catalytic H 2O 2 Decomposition on Single Colloidal Pt Nanoparticles Using Nanofluidic Scattering Microscopy. ACS NANO 2023; 17:21030-21043. [PMID: 37847543 PMCID: PMC10655234 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.3c03977] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2023] [Accepted: 10/09/2023] [Indexed: 10/18/2023]
Abstract
Single-particle catalysis aims at determining factors that dictate the nanoparticle activity and selectivity. Existing methods often use fluorescent model reactions at low reactant concentrations, operate at low pressures, or rely on plasmonic enhancement effects. Hence, methods to measure single-nanoparticle activity under technically relevant conditions and without fluorescence or other enhancement mechanisms are still lacking. Here, we introduce nanofluidic scattering microscopy of catalytic reactions on single colloidal nanoparticles trapped inside nanofluidic channels to fill this gap. By detecting minuscule refractive index changes in a liquid flushed trough a nanochannel, we demonstrate that local H2O2 concentration changes in water can be accurately measured. Applying this principle, we analyze the H2O2 concentration profiles adjacent to single colloidal Pt nanoparticles during catalytic H2O2 decomposition into O2 and H2O and derive the particles' individual turnover frequencies from the growth rate of the O2 gas bubbles formed in their respective nanochannel during reaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Björn Altenburger
- Department
of Physics, Chalmers University of Technology, SE-412 96 Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Carl Andersson
- Department
of Physics, Chalmers University of Technology, SE-412 96 Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Sune Levin
- Department
of Life Sciences, Chalmers University of
Technology, SE-412 96 Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Fredrik Westerlund
- Department
of Life Sciences, Chalmers University of
Technology, SE-412 96 Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Joachim Fritzsche
- Department
of Physics, Chalmers University of Technology, SE-412 96 Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Christoph Langhammer
- Department
of Physics, Chalmers University of Technology, SE-412 96 Gothenburg, Sweden
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6
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Zhao T, Jiang Y, Luo S, Ying Y, Zhang Q, Tang S, Chen L, Xia J, Xue P, Zhang JJ, Sun SG, Liao HG. On-chip gas reaction nanolab for in situ TEM observation. LAB ON A CHIP 2023; 23:3768-3777. [PMID: 37489871 DOI: 10.1039/d3lc00184a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/26/2023]
Abstract
The catalysis reaction mechanism at nano/atomic scale attracted intense attention in the past decades. However, most in situ characterization technologies can only reflect the average information of catalysts, which leads to the inability to characterize the dynamic changes of single nanostructures or active sites under operando conditions, and many micro-nanoscale reaction mechanisms are still unknown. The combination of in situ transmission electron microscopy (TEM) holder system with MEMS chips provides a solution for it, where the design and fabrication of MEMS chips are the key factors. Here, with the aid of finite element simulation, an ultra-stable heating chip was developed, which has an ultra-low thermal drift during temperature heating. Under ambient conditions within TEM, atomic resolution imaging was achieved during the heating process or at high temperature up to 1300 °C. Combined with the developed polymer membrane seal technique and nanofluidic control system, it can realize an adjustable pressure from 0.1 bar to 4 bar gas environment around the sample. By using the developed ultra-low drift gas reaction cells, the nanoparticle's structure evolution at atomic scale was identified during reaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tiqing Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Physical Chemistry of Solid Surfaces, Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemistry for Energy Materials, Department of Chemistry, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361005, People's Republic of China
| | - Youhong Jiang
- State Key Laboratory of Physical Chemistry of Solid Surfaces, Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemistry for Energy Materials, Department of Chemistry, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361005, People's Republic of China
| | - Shiwen Luo
- State Key Laboratory of Physical Chemistry of Solid Surfaces, Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemistry for Energy Materials, Department of Chemistry, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361005, People's Republic of China
| | - Yifan Ying
- State Key Laboratory of Physical Chemistry of Solid Surfaces, Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemistry for Energy Materials, Department of Chemistry, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361005, People's Republic of China
| | - Qian Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Physical Chemistry of Solid Surfaces, Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemistry for Energy Materials, Department of Chemistry, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361005, People's Republic of China
| | - Shi Tang
- State Key Laboratory of Physical Chemistry of Solid Surfaces, Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemistry for Energy Materials, Department of Chemistry, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361005, People's Republic of China
| | - Linzhi Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Physical Chemistry of Solid Surfaces, Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemistry for Energy Materials, Department of Chemistry, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361005, People's Republic of China
| | - Jing Xia
- State Key Laboratory of Physical Chemistry of Solid Surfaces, Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemistry for Energy Materials, Department of Chemistry, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361005, People's Republic of China
| | - Peng Xue
- State Key Laboratory of Physical Chemistry of Solid Surfaces, Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemistry for Energy Materials, Department of Chemistry, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361005, People's Republic of China
| | - Jia-Jun Zhang
- Xiamen Chip-Nova Technology Co., Ltd., Xiamen 361005, People's Republic of China
| | - Shi-Gang Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Physical Chemistry of Solid Surfaces, Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemistry for Energy Materials, Department of Chemistry, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361005, People's Republic of China
| | - Hong-Gang Liao
- State Key Laboratory of Physical Chemistry of Solid Surfaces, Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemistry for Energy Materials, Department of Chemistry, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361005, People's Republic of China
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7
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A review of in situ/Operando studies of heterogeneous catalytic hydrogenation of CO2 to methanol. Catal Today 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cattod.2023.02.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/10/2023]
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8
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Pu Y, He B, Niu Y, Liu X, Zhang B. Chemical Electron Microscopy (CEM) for Heterogeneous Catalysis at Nano: Recent Progress and Challenges. RESEARCH (WASHINGTON, D.C.) 2023; 6:0043. [PMID: 36930759 PMCID: PMC10013794 DOI: 10.34133/research.0043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2022] [Accepted: 12/18/2022] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Chemical electron microscopy (CEM), a toolbox that comprises imaging and spectroscopy techniques, provides dynamic morphological, structural, chemical, and electronic information about an object in chemical environment under conditions of observable performance. CEM has experienced a revolutionary improvement in the past years and is becoming an effective characterization method for revealing the mechanism of chemical reactions, such as catalysis. Here, we mainly address the concept of CEM for heterogeneous catalysis in the gas phase and what CEM could uniquely contribute to catalysis, and illustrate what we can know better with CEM and the challenges and future development of CEM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yinghui Pu
- Shenyang National Laboratory for Materials Science, Institute of Metal Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 72 Wenhua Road, Shenyang 110016, China.,School of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Science and Technology of China, 72 Wenhua Road, Shenyang 110016, China
| | - Bowen He
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, In-situ Center for Physical Sciences, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Yiming Niu
- Shenyang National Laboratory for Materials Science, Institute of Metal Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 72 Wenhua Road, Shenyang 110016, China.,School of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Science and Technology of China, 72 Wenhua Road, Shenyang 110016, China
| | - Xi Liu
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, In-situ Center for Physical Sciences, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Bingsen Zhang
- Shenyang National Laboratory for Materials Science, Institute of Metal Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 72 Wenhua Road, Shenyang 110016, China.,School of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Science and Technology of China, 72 Wenhua Road, Shenyang 110016, China
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9
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Sytwu K, Vadai M, Hayee F, Angell DK, Dai A, Dixon J, Dionne JA. Driving energetically unfavorable dehydrogenation dynamics with plasmonics. Science 2021; 371:280-283. [PMID: 33446555 DOI: 10.1126/science.abd2847] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2020] [Revised: 10/16/2020] [Accepted: 12/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Nanoparticle surface structure and geometry generally dictate where chemical transformations occur, with higher chemical activity at sites with lower activation energies. Here, we show how optical excitation of plasmons enables spatially modified phase transformations, activating otherwise energetically unfavorable sites. We have designed a crossed-bar Au-PdH x antenna-reactor system that localizes electromagnetic enhancement away from the innately reactive PdH x nanorod tips. Using optically coupled in situ environmental transmission electron microscopy, we track the dehydrogenation of individual antenna-reactor pairs with varying optical illumination intensity, wavelength, and hydrogen pressure. Our in situ experiments show that plasmons enable new catalytic sites, including dehydrogenation at the nanorod faces. Molecular dynamics simulations confirm that these new nucleation sites are energetically unfavorable in equilibrium and only accessible through tailored plasmonic excitation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine Sytwu
- Department of Applied Physics, Stanford University, 348 Via Pueblo, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Michal Vadai
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Stanford University, 496 Lomita Mall, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Fariah Hayee
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Stanford University, 350 Jane Stanford Way, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Daniel K Angell
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Stanford University, 496 Lomita Mall, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Alan Dai
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Stanford University, 443 Via Ortega, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Jefferson Dixon
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Stanford University, 440 Escondido Mall, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Jennifer A Dionne
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Stanford University, 496 Lomita Mall, Stanford, CA 94305, USA.
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10
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Miller BK, Crozier PA. Linking Changes in Reaction Kinetics and Atomic-Level Surface Structures on a Supported Ru Catalyst for CO Oxidation. ACS Catal 2021. [DOI: 10.1021/acscatal.0c03789] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin K. Miller
- School for Engineering of Matter, Transport and Energy, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona 85287-6106, United States
| | - Peter A. Crozier
- School for Engineering of Matter, Transport and Energy, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona 85287-6106, United States
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11
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van der Wal LI, Turner SJ, Zečević J. Developments and advances in in situ transmission electron microscopy for catalysis research. Catal Sci Technol 2021. [DOI: 10.1039/d1cy00258a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Recent developments and advances in in situ TEM have raised the possibility to study every step during the catalysts' lifecycle. This review discusses the current state, opportunities and challenges of in situ TEM in the realm of catalysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lars I. van der Wal
- Materials Chemistry and Catalysis
- Debye Institute for Nanomaterials Science
- Utrecht University
- Utrecht
- The Netherlands
| | - Savannah J. Turner
- Materials Chemistry and Catalysis
- Debye Institute for Nanomaterials Science
- Utrecht University
- Utrecht
- The Netherlands
| | - Jovana Zečević
- Materials Chemistry and Catalysis
- Debye Institute for Nanomaterials Science
- Utrecht University
- Utrecht
- The Netherlands
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12
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Boniface M, Plodinec M, Schlögl R, Lunkenbein T. Quo Vadis Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems for the Study of Heterogeneous Catalysts Inside the Electron Microscope? Top Catal 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s11244-020-01398-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
AbstractDuring the last decade, modern micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS) technology has been used to create cells that can act as catalytic nanoreactors and fit into the sample holders of transmission electron microscopes. These nanoreactors can maintain atmospheric or higher pressures inside the cells as they seal gases or liquids from the vacuum of the TEM column and can reach temperatures exceeding 1000 °C. This has led to a paradigm shift in electron microscopy, which facilitates the local characterization of structural and morphological changes of solid catalysts under working conditions. In this review, we outline the development of state-of-the-art nanoreactor setups that are commercially available and are currently applied to study catalytic reactions in situ or operando in gaseous or liquid environments. We also discuss challenges that are associated with the use of environmental cells. In catalysis studies, one of the major challenge is the interpretation of the results while considering the discrepancies in kinetics between MEMS based gas cells and fixed bed reactors, the interactions of the electron beam with the sample, as well as support effects. Finally, we critically analyze the general role of MEMS based nanoreactors in electron microscopy and catalysis communities and present possible future directions.
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13
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Chemical kinetics for operando electron microscopy of catalysts: 3D modeling of gas and temperature distributions during catalytic reactions. Ultramicroscopy 2020; 218:113080. [PMID: 32795882 DOI: 10.1016/j.ultramic.2020.113080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2020] [Revised: 07/14/2020] [Accepted: 07/20/2020] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
In situ environmental transmission electron microscopy (ETEM) is a powerful tool for observing structural modifications taking place in heterogeneous catalysts under reaction conditions. However, to strengthen the link between catalyst structure and functionality, an operando measurement must be performed in which reaction kinetics and catalyst structure are simultaneously determined. To determine chemical kinetics for gas-phase catalysis, it is necessary to develop a reliable chemical engineering model to describe catalysis as well as heat and mass transport processes within the ETEM cell. Here, we establish a finite element model to determine the gas and temperature profiles during catalysis in an open-cell operando ETEM experiment. The model is applied to a SiO2-supported Ru catalyst performing CO oxidation. Good agreement is achieved between simulated compositions and those measured experimentally across a temperature range of 25 - 350 °C. In general, for lower conversions, the simulations show that the temperature and gas are relatively homogeneous within the hot zone of the TEM holder where the catalyst is located. The uniformity of gas and temperature indicates that the ETEM reactor system behavior approximates that of a continuously stirred tank reactor (CSTR). The large degree of gas-phase uniformity also allows one to estimate the catalytic conversion of reactants in the cell to within 10% using electron energy-loss spectroscopy. Moreover, the findings indicate that for reactant conversions below 35%, one can reliably evaluate the steady-state reaction rate of catalyst nanoparticles that are imaged on the TEM grid.
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14
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Gogate MR. New perspectives on the nature and imaging of active site in small metallic particles: I. Geometric effects. CHEM ENG COMMUN 2019. [DOI: 10.1080/00986445.2019.1692002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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15
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In Situ Preparation of Pr1-xCaxMnO3 and La1-xSrxMnO3 Catalysts Surface for High-Resolution Environmental Transmission Electron Microscopy. Catalysts 2019. [DOI: 10.3390/catal9090751] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The study of changes in the atomic structure of a catalyst under chemical reaction conditions is extremely important for understanding the mechanism of their operation. For in situ environmental transmission electron microscopy (ETEM) studies, this requires preparation of electron transparent ultrathin TEM lamella without surface damage. Here, thin films of Pr1-xCaxMnO3 (PCMO, x = 0.1, 0.33) and La1-xSrxMnO3 (LSMO, x = 0.4) perovskites are used to demonstrate a cross-section specimen preparation method, comprised of two steps. The first step is based on optimized focused ion beam cutting procedures using a photoresist protection layer, finally being removed by plasma-etching. The second step is applicable for materials susceptible to surface amorphization, where in situ recrystallization back to perovskite structure is achieved by using electron beam driven chemistry in gases. This requires reduction of residual water vapor in a TEM column. Depending on the gas environment, long crystalline facets having different atomic terminations and Mn-valence state, can be prepared.
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16
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Gorelick S, Alan T, Sadek AZ, Tjeung RT, Marco AD. Nanofluidic and monolithic environmental cells for cryogenic microscopy. NANOTECHNOLOGY 2019; 30:085301. [PMID: 30582575 DOI: 10.1088/1361-6528/aaea44] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
We present a device capable of combining nanofluidics and cryogenic transmission electron microscopy (cryo-TEM) to allow inspection of water-soluble samples under near-native conditions. The devices can be produced in a multitude of designs, but as a general rule, they consist of channels or chambers enclosed between two electron-transparent silicon nitride windows. With the appropriate design, those devices can allow screening of multiple samples in parallel and remove the interaction between the sample and the environment (no air-water interface). We demonstrate channel sizes from 80 to 500 nm in height and widths from 100 to 2000 μm. The presented fabrication flow allows producing hollow devices on a single wafer eliminating the need of aligning or bonding two half-cavities from separate wafers, which provides additional resistance to thermal stress. Taking advantage of a single-step through-membrane exposure with a 100 keV electron beam, we introduced arrays of thin (10-15 nm) electron-transparent silicon nitride membrane windows aligned between top and bottom (200-250 nm) carrier membranes. Importantly, the final devices are compatible with standard TEM holders. Furthermore, they are compatible with rapid freezing of samples, which is crucial for the formation of vitreous water, hence avoiding the formation of crystalline ice, that is detrimental for TEM imaging. To demonstrate the potential of this technology, we tested those devices in imaging experiments verifying their applicability for cryo-TEM applications and proved that vitreous water could be prepared through conventional plunge freezing of the chips.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Gorelick
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Medicine, Nursing and Health Sciences, Monash University, 23 Innovation Walk, 3800 Clayton, Victoria, Australia. ARC Centre of Excellence in Advanced Molecular Imaging, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
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17
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Barrera O, Bombac D, Chen Y, Daff TD, Galindo-Nava E, Gong P, Haley D, Horton R, Katzarov I, Kermode JR, Liverani C, Stopher M, Sweeney F. Understanding and mitigating hydrogen embrittlement of steels: a review of experimental, modelling and design progress from atomistic to continuum. JOURNAL OF MATERIALS SCIENCE 2018; 53:6251-6290. [PMID: 31258179 PMCID: PMC6560796 DOI: 10.1007/s10853-017-1978-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2017] [Accepted: 12/28/2017] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Hydrogen embrittlement is a complex phenomenon, involving several length- and timescales, that affects a large class of metals. It can significantly reduce the ductility and load-bearing capacity and cause cracking and catastrophic brittle failures at stresses below the yield stress of susceptible materials. Despite a large research effort in attempting to understand the mechanisms of failure and in developing potential mitigating solutions, hydrogen embrittlement mechanisms are still not completely understood. There are controversial opinions in the literature regarding the underlying mechanisms and related experimental evidence supporting each of these theories. The aim of this paper is to provide a detailed review up to the current state of the art on the effect of hydrogen on the degradation of metals, with a particular focus on steels. Here, we describe the effect of hydrogen in steels from the atomistic to the continuum scale by reporting theoretical evidence supported by quantum calculation and modern experimental characterisation methods, macroscopic effects that influence the mechanical properties of steels and established damaging mechanisms for the embrittlement of steels. Furthermore, we give an insight into current approaches and new mitigation strategies used to design new steels resistant to hydrogen embrittlement.
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Affiliation(s)
- O. Barrera
- Oxford Brookes University, Wheatley Campus, Wheatley, Oxford, OX33 1HX UK
- Department of Engineering Science, University of Oxford, Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3PJ UK
| | - D. Bombac
- Department of Materials Science and Metallurgy, University of Cambridge, 27 Charles Babbage Road, Cambridge, CB3 0FS UK
| | - Y. Chen
- Department of Materials, University of Oxford, Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3PH UK
| | - T. D. Daff
- Engineering Laboratory, University of Cambridge, Trumpington Street, Cambridge, CB2 1PZ UK
| | - E. Galindo-Nava
- Department of Materials Science and Metallurgy, University of Cambridge, 27 Charles Babbage Road, Cambridge, CB3 0FS UK
| | - P. Gong
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Sheffield, Mappin Street, Sheffield, S1 3JD UK
| | - D. Haley
- Department of Materials, University of Oxford, Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3PH UK
| | - R. Horton
- Department of Physics, Imperial College London, Prince Consort Road, London, SW7 2BB UK
| | - I. Katzarov
- Department of Physics, King’s College London, Strand, London, WC2R 2LS UK
| | - J. R. Kermode
- Warwick Centre for Predictive Modelling, School of Engineering, University of Warwick, Coventry, CV4 7AL UK
| | - C. Liverani
- Department of Physics, Imperial College London, Prince Consort Road, London, SW7 2BB UK
| | - M. Stopher
- Department of Materials Science and Metallurgy, University of Cambridge, 27 Charles Babbage Road, Cambridge, CB3 0FS UK
| | - F. Sweeney
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Sheffield, Mappin Street, Sheffield, S1 3JD UK
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18
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Dembele K, Moldovan S, Hirlimann C, Harmel J, Soulantica K, Serp P, Chaudret B, Gay AS, Maury S, Berliet A, Fecant A, Ersen O. Reactivity and structural evolution of urchin-like Co nanostructures under controlled environments. J Microsc 2017; 269:168-176. [PMID: 29064561 DOI: 10.1111/jmi.12656] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2017] [Revised: 09/08/2017] [Accepted: 09/16/2017] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
In situ transmission electron microscopy (TEM) of samples in a controlled gas environment allows for the real time study of the dynamical changes in nanomaterials at high temperatures and pressures up to the ambient pressure (105 Pa) with a spatial resolution close to the atomic scale. In the field of catalysis, the implementation and quantitative use of in situ procedures are fundamental for a better understanding of the behaviour of catalysts in their environments and operating conditions. By using a microelectromechanical systems (MEMS)-based atmospheric gas cell, we have studied the thermal stability and the reactivity of crystalline cobalt nanostructures with initial 'urchin-like' morphologies sustained by native surface ligands that result from their synthesis reaction. We have evidenced various behaviors of the Co nanostructures that depend on the environment used during the observations. At high temperature under vacuum or in an inert atmosphere, the migration of Co atoms towards the core of the particles is activated and leads to the formation of carbon nanostructures using as a template the initial multipods morphology. In the case of reactive environments, for example, pure oxygen, our investigation allowed to directly monitor the voids formation through the Kirkendall effect. Once the nanostructures were oxidised, it was possible to reduce them back to the metallic phase using a dihydrogen flux. Under a pure hydrogen atmosphere, the sintering of the whole structure occurred, which illustrates the high reactivity of such structures as well as the fundamental role of the present ligands as morphology stabilisers. The last type of environmental study under pure CO and syngas (i.e. a mixture of H2 :CO = 2:1) revealed the metal particles carburisation at high temperature.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Dembele
- Institut de Physique et Chimie des Matériaux de Strasbourg (IPCMS), Strasbourg, France.,IFP Energies nouvelles, Rond Point de l'échangeur de Solaize, Solaize, France
| | - S Moldovan
- Institut de Physique et Chimie des Matériaux de Strasbourg (IPCMS), Strasbourg, France.,Groupe de Physique des Matériaux UMR CNRS 6634, Université de Rouen, INSA Rouen, Avenue de l'Université, Saint Etienne du Rouvray, France
| | - Ch Hirlimann
- Institut de Physique et Chimie des Matériaux de Strasbourg (IPCMS), Strasbourg, France
| | - J Harmel
- Laboratoire de Chimie de Coordination UPR CNRS 8241, composante ENSIACET, Université de Toulouse UPS-INP-LCC, Toulouse, Cedex 4, France.,Laboratoire de Physique et Chimie des Nano-objets (LPCNO), Université de Toulouse, CNRS, INSA, UPS, Toulouse, France
| | - K Soulantica
- Laboratoire de Physique et Chimie des Nano-objets (LPCNO), Université de Toulouse, CNRS, INSA, UPS, Toulouse, France
| | - P Serp
- Laboratoire de Chimie de Coordination UPR CNRS 8241, composante ENSIACET, Université de Toulouse UPS-INP-LCC, Toulouse, Cedex 4, France
| | - B Chaudret
- Laboratoire de Physique et Chimie des Nano-objets (LPCNO), Université de Toulouse, CNRS, INSA, UPS, Toulouse, France
| | - A-S Gay
- IFP Energies nouvelles, Rond Point de l'échangeur de Solaize, Solaize, France
| | - S Maury
- IFP Energies nouvelles, Rond Point de l'échangeur de Solaize, Solaize, France
| | - A Berliet
- IFP Energies nouvelles, Rond Point de l'échangeur de Solaize, Solaize, France
| | - A Fecant
- IFP Energies nouvelles, Rond Point de l'échangeur de Solaize, Solaize, France
| | - O Ersen
- Institut de Physique et Chimie des Matériaux de Strasbourg (IPCMS), Strasbourg, France.,University of Strasbourg Institute for Advanced Studies (USIAS), Strasbourg, France.,Institut Universitaire de France (IUF), Paris, France
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19
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Gao W, Hood ZD, Chi M. Interfaces in Heterogeneous Catalysts: Advancing Mechanistic Understanding through Atomic-Scale Measurements. Acc Chem Res 2017; 50:787-795. [PMID: 28207240 DOI: 10.1021/acs.accounts.6b00596] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Developing novel catalysts with high efficiency and selectivity is critical for enabling future clean energy conversion technologies. Interfaces in catalyst systems have long been considered the most critical factor in controlling catalytic reaction mechanisms. Interfaces include not only the catalyst surface but also interfaces within catalyst particles and those formed by constructing heterogeneous catalysts. The atomic and electronic structures of catalytic surfaces govern the kinetics of binding and release of reactant molecules from surface atoms. Interfaces within catalysts are introduced to enhance the intrinsic activity and stability of the catalyst by tuning the surface atomic and chemical structures. Examples include interfaces between the core and shell, twin or domain boundaries, or phase boundaries within single catalyst particles. In supported catalyst nanoparticles (NPs), the interface between the metallic NP and support serves as a critical tuning factor for enhancing catalytic activity. Surface electronic structure can be indirectly tuned and catalytically active sites can be increased through the use of supporting oxides. Tuning interfaces in catalyst systems has been identified as an important strategy in the design of novel catalysts. However, the governing principle of how interfaces contribute to catalyst behavior, especially in terms of interactions with intermediates and their stability during electrochemical operation, are largely unknown. This is mainly due to the evolving nature of such interfaces. Small changes in the structural and chemical configuration of these interfaces may result in altering the catalytic performance. These interfacial arrangements evolve continuously during synthesis, processing, use, and even static operation. A technique that can probe the local atomic and electronic interfacial structures with high precision while monitoring the dynamic interfacial behavior in situ is essential for elucidating the role of interfaces and providing deeper insight for fine-tuning and optimizing catalyst properties. Scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM) has long been a primary characterization technique used for studying nanomaterials because of its exceptional imaging resolution and simultaneous chemical analysis. Over the past decade, advances in STEM, that is, the commercialization of both aberration correctors and monochromators, have significantly improved the spatial and energy resolution. Imaging atomic structures with subangstrom resolution and identifying chemical species with single-atom sensitivity are now routine for STEM. These advancements have greatly benefitted catalytic research. For example, the roles of lattice strain and surface elemental distribution and their effect on catalytic stability and reactivity have been well documented in bimetallic catalysts. In addition, three-dimensional atomic structures revealed by STEM tomography have been integrated in theoretical modeling for predictive catalyst NP design. Recent developments in stable electronic and mechanical devices have opened opportunities to monitor the evolution of catalysts in operando under synthesis and reaction conditions; high-speed direct electron detectors have achieved sub-millisecond time resolutions and allow for rapid structural and chemical changes to be captured. Investigations of catalysts using these latest microscopy techniques have provided new insights into atomic-level catalytic mechanisms. Further integration of new microscopy methods is expected to provide multidimensional descriptions of interfaces under relevant synthesis and reaction conditions. In this Account, we discuss recent insights on understanding catalyst activity, selectivity, and stability using advanced STEM techniques, with an emphasis on how critical interfaces dictate the performance of precious metal-based heterogeneous catalysts. The role of extended interfacial structures, including those between core and shell, between separate phases and twinned grains, between the catalyst surface and gas, and between metal and support are discussed. We also provide an outlook on how emerging electron microscopy techniques, such as vibrational spectroscopy and electron ptychography, will impact future catalysis research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenpei Gao
- Center for Nanophase
Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, United States
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, California 92697, United States
| | - Zachary D. Hood
- Center for Nanophase
Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, United States
- School of
Chemistry and Biochemistry, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332, United States
| | - Miaofang Chi
- Center for Nanophase
Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, United States
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20
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Surrey A, Schultz L, Rellinghaus B. Multislice simulations for in-situ HRTEM studies of nanostructured magnesium hydride at ambient hydrogen pressure. Ultramicroscopy 2017; 175:111-115. [PMID: 28187364 DOI: 10.1016/j.ultramic.2017.01.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2016] [Revised: 01/16/2017] [Accepted: 01/29/2017] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
The use of transmission electron microscopy (TEM) for the structural characterization of many nanostructured hydrides, which are relevant for solid state hydrogen storage, is hindered due to a rapid decomposition of the specimen upon irradiation with the electron beam. Environmental TEM allows to stabilize the hydrides by applying a hydrogen back pressure of up to 4.5 bar in a windowed environmental cell. The feasibility of high-resolution TEM (HRTEM) investigations of light weight metals and metal hydrides in such a "nanoreactor" is studied theoretically by means of multislice HRTEM contrast simulations using Mg and its hydride phase, MgH2, as model system. Such a setup provides the general opportunity to study dehydrogenation and hydrogenation reactions at the nanoscale under technological application conditions. We analyze the dependence of both the spatial resolution and the HRTEM image contrast on parameters such as the defocus, the metal/hydride thickness, and the hydrogen pressure in order to explore the possibilities and limitations of in-situ experiments with windowed environmental cells. Such simulations may be highly valuable to pre-evaluate future experimental studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Surrey
- IFW Dresden, Institute for Metallic Materials, P.O. Box 270116, D-01171 Dresden, Germany; Institut für Festkörperphysik, Technische Universität Dresden, D-01062 Dresden, Germany.
| | - Ludwig Schultz
- IFW Dresden, Institute for Metallic Materials, P.O. Box 270116, D-01171 Dresden, Germany; Institut für Festkörperphysik, Technische Universität Dresden, D-01062 Dresden, Germany
| | - Bernd Rellinghaus
- IFW Dresden, Institute for Metallic Materials, P.O. Box 270116, D-01171 Dresden, Germany.
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21
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Direct visualization of hydrogen absorption dynamics in individual palladium nanoparticles. Nat Commun 2017; 8:14020. [PMID: 28091597 PMCID: PMC5241819 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms14020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2016] [Accepted: 11/22/2016] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Many energy storage materials undergo large volume changes during charging and discharging. The resulting stresses often lead to defect formation in the bulk, but less so in nanosized systems. Here, we capture in real time the mechanism of one such transformation—the hydrogenation of single-crystalline palladium nanocubes from 15 to 80 nm—to better understand the reason for this durability. First, using environmental scanning transmission electron microscopy, we monitor the hydrogen absorption process in real time with 3 nm resolution. Then, using dark-field imaging, we structurally examine the reaction intermediates with 1 nm resolution. The reaction proceeds through nucleation and growth of the new phase in corners of the nanocubes. As the hydrogenated phase propagates across the particles, portions of the lattice misorient by 1.5%, diminishing crystal quality. Once transformed, all the particles explored return to a pristine state. The nanoparticles' ability to remove crystallographic imperfections renders them more durable than their bulk counterparts.
It remains unclear why energy storage systems with nanoscale constituents are less susceptible to stress-induced damage than their bulk counterparts. Here, the authors probe in real time the intercalation-driven phase transitions of nanoscale palladium hydride, finding that these nanoparticles are able to fix crystallographic flaws as they form.
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22
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Li J, Jia Y, Xu Y, Yang H, Sun LD, Yan CH, Bie LJ, Ju J. In situepitaxial growth of GdF3on NaGdF4:Yb,Er nanoparticles. Inorg Chem Front 2017. [DOI: 10.1039/c7qi00527j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
By electron-beam irradiation of TEM, GdF3(020) was epitaxially grown on the interface of NaGdF4(111).
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiangfeng Li
- School of Materials Science and Engineering
- Tianjin University of Technology
- Tianjin 300384
- China
- College of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering
| | - Yunling Jia
- College of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering
- Peking University
- Beijing 100871
- China
| | - Yuejiao Xu
- College of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering
- Peking University
- Beijing 100871
- China
| | - Hui Yang
- Capital Medical University
- Beijing 100069
- China
| | - Ling-dong Sun
- College of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering
- Peking University
- Beijing 100871
- China
| | - Chun-hua Yan
- College of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering
- Peking University
- Beijing 100871
- China
| | - Li-jian Bie
- School of Materials Science and Engineering
- Tianjin University of Technology
- Tianjin 300384
- China
| | - Jing Ju
- College of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering
- Peking University
- Beijing 100871
- China
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23
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Dou J, Sun Z, Opalade AA, Wang N, Fu W, Tao F(F. Operando chemistry of catalyst surfaces during catalysis. Chem Soc Rev 2017; 46:2001-2027. [DOI: 10.1039/c6cs00931j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The chemistry of a catalyst surface during catalysis is crucial for a fundamental understanding of the mechanisms of a catalytic reaction performed on the catalyst in the gas or liquid phase.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian Dou
- Department of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering and Department of Chemistry
- University of Kansas
- Lawrence
- USA
| | - Zaicheng Sun
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering
- Beijing University of Technology
- Beijing
- China
| | - Adedamola A. Opalade
- Department of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering and Department of Chemistry
- University of Kansas
- Lawrence
- USA
| | - Nan Wang
- Department of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering and Department of Chemistry
- University of Kansas
- Lawrence
- USA
| | - Wensheng Fu
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Green Synthesis and Applications and College of Chemistry
- Chongqing Normal University
- Chongqing
- China
| | - Franklin (Feng) Tao
- Department of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering and Department of Chemistry
- University of Kansas
- Lawrence
- USA
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24
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Zhang X, Meng J, Zhu B, Yu J, Zou S, Zhang Z, Gao Y, Wang Y. In situ TEM studies of the shape evolution of Pd nanocrystals under oxygen and hydrogen environments at atmospheric pressure. Chem Commun (Camb) 2017; 53:13213-13216. [DOI: 10.1039/c7cc07649e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The shape evolutions of Pd nanocrystals under oxygen and hydrogen environments at atmospheric pressure were studied using in situ TEM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xun Zhang
- Center of Electron Microscopy and State Key Laboratory of Silicon Materials
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering
- Zhejiang University
- Hangzhou 310027
- China
| | - Jun Meng
- Division of Interfacial Water and Key Laboratory of Interfacial Physics and Technology
- Shanghai Institute of Applied Physics
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Shanghai 201800
- China
| | - Beien Zhu
- Division of Interfacial Water and Key Laboratory of Interfacial Physics and Technology
- Shanghai Institute of Applied Physics
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Shanghai 201800
- China
| | - Jian Yu
- Center of Electron Microscopy and State Key Laboratory of Silicon Materials
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering
- Zhejiang University
- Hangzhou 310027
- China
| | - Shihui Zou
- Center of Electron Microscopy and State Key Laboratory of Silicon Materials
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering
- Zhejiang University
- Hangzhou 310027
- China
| | - Ze Zhang
- Center of Electron Microscopy and State Key Laboratory of Silicon Materials
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering
- Zhejiang University
- Hangzhou 310027
- China
| | - Yi Gao
- Division of Interfacial Water and Key Laboratory of Interfacial Physics and Technology
- Shanghai Institute of Applied Physics
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Shanghai 201800
- China
| | - Yong Wang
- Center of Electron Microscopy and State Key Laboratory of Silicon Materials
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering
- Zhejiang University
- Hangzhou 310027
- China
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25
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26
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Wu J, Shan H, Chen W, Gu X, Tao P, Song C, Shang W, Deng T. In Situ Environmental TEM in Imaging Gas and Liquid Phase Chemical Reactions for Materials Research. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2016; 28:9686-9712. [PMID: 27628711 DOI: 10.1002/adma.201602519] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2016] [Revised: 06/10/2016] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Gas and liquid phase chemical reactions cover a broad range of research areas in materials science and engineering, including the synthesis of nanomaterials and application of nanomaterials, for example, in the areas of sensing, energy storage and conversion, catalysis, and bio-related applications. Environmental transmission electron microscopy (ETEM) provides a unique opportunity for monitoring gas and liquid phase reactions because it enables the observation of those reactions at the ultra-high spatial resolution, which is not achievable through other techniques. Here, the fundamental science and technology developments of gas and liquid phase TEM that facilitate the mechanistic study of the gas and liquid phase chemical reactions are discussed. Combined with other characterization tools integrated in TEM, unprecedented material behaviors and reaction mechanisms are observed through the use of the in situ gas and liquid phase TEM. These observations and also the recent applications in this emerging area are described. The current challenges in the imaging process are also discussed, including the imaging speed, imaging resolution, and data management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianbo Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Metal Matrix Composites, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Rd., Shanghai, 200240, People's Republic of China
| | - Hao Shan
- State Key Laboratory of Metal Matrix Composites, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Rd., Shanghai, 200240, People's Republic of China
| | - Wenlong Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Metal Matrix Composites, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Rd., Shanghai, 200240, People's Republic of China
| | - Xin Gu
- State Key Laboratory of Metal Matrix Composites, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Rd., Shanghai, 200240, People's Republic of China
| | - Peng Tao
- State Key Laboratory of Metal Matrix Composites, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Rd., Shanghai, 200240, People's Republic of China
| | - Chengyi Song
- State Key Laboratory of Metal Matrix Composites, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Rd., Shanghai, 200240, People's Republic of China
| | - Wen Shang
- State Key Laboratory of Metal Matrix Composites, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Rd., Shanghai, 200240, People's Republic of China
| | - Tao Deng
- State Key Laboratory of Metal Matrix Composites, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Rd., Shanghai, 200240, People's Republic of China
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27
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In-Situ TEM on Epitaxial and Non-Epitaxial Oxidation of Pd and Reduction of PdO at P = 0.2-0.7 bar and T = 20-650 °C. Eur J Inorg Chem 2016. [DOI: 10.1002/ejic.201501353] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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28
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Tao F(F, Crozier PA. Atomic-Scale Observations of Catalyst Structures under Reaction Conditions and during Catalysis. Chem Rev 2016; 116:3487-539. [DOI: 10.1021/cr5002657] [Citation(s) in RCA: 203] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Franklin (Feng) Tao
- Department
of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas 66045, United States
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas 66045, United States
| | - Peter A. Crozier
- School
of Engineering of Matter, Transport and Energy, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona 85287, United States
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29
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Prati L, Chan-Thaw CE, Campisi S, Villa A. N-Modified Carbon-Based Materials: Nanoscience for Catalysis. CHEM REC 2016; 16:2187-2197. [DOI: 10.1002/tcr.201500257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2015] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Laura Prati
- Department of Chemistry; Università degli Studi di Milano; via C.Golgi 19 20133 Milano Italy
| | - Carine E. Chan-Thaw
- Department of Chemistry; Università degli Studi di Milano; via C.Golgi 19 20133 Milano Italy
| | - Sebastiano Campisi
- Department of Chemistry; Università degli Studi di Milano; via C.Golgi 19 20133 Milano Italy
| | - Alberto Villa
- Department of Chemistry; Università degli Studi di Milano; via C.Golgi 19 20133 Milano Italy
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30
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Phan HV, Coşkun MB, Şeşen M, Pandraud G, Neild A, Alan T. Vibrating membrane with discontinuities for rapid and efficient microfluidic mixing. LAB ON A CHIP 2015; 15:4206-4216. [PMID: 26381355 DOI: 10.1039/c5lc00836k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
This study presents a novel acoustic mixer comprising of a microfabricated silicon nitride membrane with a hole etched through it. We show that the introduction of the through hole leads to extremely fast and homogeneous mixing. When the membrane is immersed in fluid and subjected to acoustic excitation, a strong streaming field in the form of vortices is generated. The vortices are always observed to centre at the hole, pointing to the critical role it has on the streaming field. We hypothesise that the hole introduces a discontinuity to the boundary conditions of the membrane, leading to strong streaming vortices. With numerical simulations, we show that the hole's presence can increase the volume force responsible for driving the streaming field by 2 orders of magnitude, thus supporting our hypothesis. We investigate the mixing performance at different Peclet numbers by varying the flow rates for various devices containing circular, square and rectangular shaped holes of different dimensions. We demonstrate rapid mixing within 3 ms mixing time (90% mixing efficiency at 60 μl min(-1) total flow rate, Peclet number equals 8333 ± 3.5%) is possible with the current designs. Finally, we examine the membrane with two circular holes which are covered by air bubbles and compare it to when the membrane is fully immersed. We find that coupling between the holes' vortices occurs only when membrane is immersed; while with the bubble membrane, the upstream hole's vortices can act as a blockage to fluid flow passing it.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hoang Van Phan
- Laboratory for Micro Systems, Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Monash University, Clayton, VIC 3800, Australia.
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31
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Chan‐Thaw CE, Villa A, Wang D, Santo VD, Orbelli Biroli A, Veith GM, Thomas A, Prati L. PdH
x
Entrapped in a Covalent Triazine Framework Modulates Selectivity in Glycerol Oxidation. ChemCatChem 2015. [DOI: 10.1002/cctc.201500055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Carine E. Chan‐Thaw
- Department of Chemistry, Università degli Studi di Milano via Golgi 19, 20133 Milano (Italy)
| | - Alberto Villa
- Department of Chemistry, Università degli Studi di Milano via Golgi 19, 20133 Milano (Italy)
| | - Di Wang
- Institute of Nanotechnology and Karlsruhe Nano Micro Facility, Karlsruhe institute of technology (KIT), Hermann‐von‐Helmholtz‐Platz 1, 76344, Eggenstein‐Leopoldshafen (Germany)
| | - Vladimiro Dal Santo
- CNR‐Istituto di Scienze e Tecnologie Molecolari, Via C. Golgi 19, 20133 Milano (Italy)
| | | | - Gabriel M. Veith
- Materials Science and Technology Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN 37831 (USA)
| | - Arne Thomas
- Department of Chemistry, Functional Materials, Technische Universität Berlin, Hardenbergstr. 40, 10623 Berlin (Germany)
| | - Laura Prati
- Department of Chemistry, Università degli Studi di Milano via Golgi 19, 20133 Milano (Italy)
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32
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Colby R, Alsem D, Liyu A, Kabius B. A method for measuring the local gas pressure within a gas-flow stage in situ in the transmission electron microscope. Ultramicroscopy 2015; 153:55-60. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ultramic.2015.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2014] [Revised: 12/30/2014] [Accepted: 01/31/2015] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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33
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Takeda S, Kuwauchi Y, Yoshida H. Environmental transmission electron microscopy for catalyst materials using a spherical aberration corrector. Ultramicroscopy 2015; 151:178-190. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ultramic.2014.11.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2014] [Revised: 11/13/2014] [Accepted: 11/15/2014] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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34
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Su DS, Zhang B, Schlögl R. Electron microscopy of solid catalysts--transforming from a challenge to a toolbox. Chem Rev 2015; 115:2818-82. [PMID: 25826447 DOI: 10.1021/cr500084c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 142] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Dang Sheng Su
- †Shenyang National Laboratory for Materials Science, Institute of Metal Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 72 Wenhua Road, Shenyang 110016, China.,‡Department of Inorganic Chemistry, Fritz Haber Institute of the Max Planck Society, Faradayweg 4-6, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Bingsen Zhang
- †Shenyang National Laboratory for Materials Science, Institute of Metal Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 72 Wenhua Road, Shenyang 110016, China
| | - Robert Schlögl
- ‡Department of Inorganic Chemistry, Fritz Haber Institute of the Max Planck Society, Faradayweg 4-6, 14195 Berlin, Germany
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Damsgaard CD, Zandbergen H, W Hansen T, Chorkendorff I, B Wagner J. Controlled environment specimen transfer. MICROSCOPY AND MICROANALYSIS : THE OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF MICROSCOPY SOCIETY OF AMERICA, MICROBEAM ANALYSIS SOCIETY, MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY OF CANADA 2014; 20:1038-1045. [PMID: 24824787 DOI: 10.1017/s1431927614000853] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Specimen transfer under controlled environment conditions, such as temperature, pressure, and gas composition, is necessary to conduct successive complementary in situ characterization of materials sensitive to ambient conditions. The in situ transfer concept is introduced by linking an environmental transmission electron microscope to an in situ X-ray diffractometer through a dedicated transmission electron microscope specimen transfer holder, capable of sealing the specimen in a gaseous environment at elevated temperatures. Two catalyst material systems have been investigated; Cu/ZnO/Al2O3 catalyst for methanol synthesis and a Co/Al2O3 catalyst for Fischer-Tropsch synthesis. Both systems are sensitive to ambient atmosphere as they will oxidize after relatively short air exposure. The Cu/ZnO/Al2O3 catalyst, was reduced in the in situ X-ray diffractometer set-up, and subsequently, successfully transferred in a reactive environment to the environmental transmission electron microscope where further analysis on the local scale were conducted. The Co/Al2O3 catalyst was reduced in the environmental microscope and successfully kept reduced outside the microscope in a reactive environment. The in situ transfer holder facilitates complimentary in situ experiments of the same specimen without changing the specimen state during transfer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian D Damsgaard
- 1Center for Electron Nanoscopy,Technical University of Denmark,Kgs. Lyngby DK-2800,Denmark
| | - Henny Zandbergen
- 3Kavli Institute of Nanoscience,Delft University of Technology,2628 CJ Delft,The Netherlands
| | - Thomas W Hansen
- 1Center for Electron Nanoscopy,Technical University of Denmark,Kgs. Lyngby DK-2800,Denmark
| | - Ib Chorkendorff
- 2CINF,Department of Physics,Technical University of Denmark,Kgs. Lyngby DK-2800,Denmark
| | - Jakob B Wagner
- 1Center for Electron Nanoscopy,Technical University of Denmark,Kgs. Lyngby DK-2800,Denmark
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36
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Miller BK, Crozier PA. Analysis of catalytic gas products using electron energy-loss spectroscopy and residual gas analysis for operando transmission electron microscopy. MICROSCOPY AND MICROANALYSIS : THE OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF MICROSCOPY SOCIETY OF AMERICA, MICROBEAM ANALYSIS SOCIETY, MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY OF CANADA 2014; 20:815-824. [PMID: 24815065 DOI: 10.1017/s1431927614000749] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Operando transmission electron microscopy (TEM) of catalytic reactions requires that the gas composition inside the TEM be known during the in situ reaction. Two techniques for measuring gas composition inside the environmental TEM are described and compared here. First, electron energy-loss spectroscopy, both in the low-loss and core-loss regions of the spectrum was utilized. The data were quantified using a linear combination of reference spectra from individual gasses to fit a mixture spectrum. Mass spectrometry using a residual gas analyzer was also used to quantify the gas inside the environmental cell. Both electron energy-loss spectroscopy and residual gas analysis were applied simultaneously to a known 50/50 mixture of CO and CO2, so the results from the two techniques could be compared and evaluated. An operando TEM experiment was performed using a Ru catalyst supported on silica spheres and loaded into the TEM on a specially developed porous pellet TEM sample. Both techniques were used to monitor the conversion of CO to CO2 over the catalyst, while simultaneous atomic resolution imaging of the catalyst was performed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin K Miller
- School for Engineering of Matter,Transport and Energy,Arizona State University,Tempe,AZ 85287-6106,USA
| | - Peter A Crozier
- School for Engineering of Matter,Transport and Energy,Arizona State University,Tempe,AZ 85287-6106,USA
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37
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Hansen TW, Wagner JB. Catalysts under Controlled Atmospheres in the Transmission Electron Microscope. ACS Catal 2014. [DOI: 10.1021/cs401148d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Thomas W. Hansen
- Center for Electron Nanoscopy, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800 Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Jakob B. Wagner
- Center for Electron Nanoscopy, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800 Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
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38
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Xin HL, Niu K, Alsem DH, Zheng H. In situ TEM study of catalytic nanoparticle reactions in atmospheric pressure gas environment. MICROSCOPY AND MICROANALYSIS : THE OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF MICROSCOPY SOCIETY OF AMERICA, MICROBEAM ANALYSIS SOCIETY, MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY OF CANADA 2013; 19:1558-1568. [PMID: 24011167 DOI: 10.1017/s1431927613013433] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
The understanding of solid-gas interactions has been greatly advanced over the past decade on account of the availability of high-resolution transmission electron microscopes (TEMs) equipped with differentially pumped environmental cells. The operational pressures in these differentially pumped environmental TEM (DP-ETEM) instruments are generally limited up to 20 mbar. Yet, many industrial catalytic reactions are operated at pressures equal or higher than 1 bar-50 times higher than that in the DP-ETEM. This poses limitations for in situ study of gas reactions through ETEM and advances are needed to extend in situ TEM study of gas reactions to the higher pressure range. Here, we present a first series of experiments using a gas flow membrane cell TEM holder that allows a pressure up to 4 bar. The built-in membrane heaters enable reactions at a temperature of 95-400°C with flowing reactive gases. We demonstrate that, using a conventional thermionic TEM, 2 Å atomic fringes can be resolved with the presence of 1 bar O2 gases in an environmental cell and we show real-time observation of the Kirkendall effect during oxidation of cobalt nanocatalysts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huolin L Xin
- Materials Sciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
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39
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Vendelbo SB, Kooyman PJ, Creemer JF, Morana B, Mele L, Dona P, Nelissen BJ, Helveg S. Method for local temperature measurement in a nanoreactor for in situ high-resolution electron microscopy. Ultramicroscopy 2013; 133:72-9. [PMID: 23831940 DOI: 10.1016/j.ultramic.2013.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2012] [Revised: 04/05/2013] [Accepted: 04/21/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
In situ high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (TEM) of solids under reactive gas conditions can be facilitated by microelectromechanical system devices called nanoreactors. These nanoreactors are windowed cells containing nanoliter volumes of gas at ambient pressures and elevated temperatures. However, due to the high spatial confinement of the reaction environment, traditional methods for measuring process parameters, such as the local temperature, are difficult to apply. To address this issue, we devise an electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS) method that probes the local temperature of the reaction volume under inspection by the electron beam. The local gas density, as measured using quantitative EELS, is combined with the inherent relation between gas density and temperature, as described by the ideal gas law, to obtain the local temperature. Using this method we determined the temperature gradient in a nanoreactor in situ, while the average, global temperature was monitored by a traditional measurement of the electrical resistivity of the heater. The local gas temperatures had a maximum of 56 °C deviation from the global heater values under the applied conditions. The local temperatures, obtained with the proposed method, are in good agreement with predictions from an analytical model.
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Affiliation(s)
- S B Vendelbo
- ChemE, Delft University of Technology, Julianalaan 136, 2628 BL Delft, The Netherlands
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40
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Thomas JM, Ducati C, Leary R, Midgley PA. Some Turning Points in the Chemical Electron Microscopic Study of Heterogeneous Catalysts. ChemCatChem 2013. [DOI: 10.1002/cctc.201200883] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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41
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Abstract
A carbon sandwich environmental cell for wet specimens was developed for environmental transmission electron microscopy (E-TEM). A plastic film with many holes was used to form carbon capsules. The carbon sandwich environmental cells were composed of the spacer and two carbon films and enclosing the samples and experimental solution. The thickness of the water layer can be controlled by changing the conditions used to prepare the plastic spacers. The quality of the images was improved over our previous E-TEM, which could circulate gas around samples. A resolution of 2 nm was obtained by using loosely condensed DNAs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuhri Inayoshi
- Department of Applied Physics, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Koganei, Tokyo 184-8588, Japan
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42
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Zhang B, Su H, Gu X, Zhang Y, Wang P, Li X, Zhang X, Wang H, Yang X, Zeng S. Trapping the catalyst working state by amber-inspired hybrid material to reveal the cobalt nanostructure evolution in clean liquid fuel synthesis. Catal Sci Technol 2013. [DOI: 10.1039/c3cy00366c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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43
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Malladi S, Shen C, Xu Q, de Kruijff T, Yücelen E, Tichelaar F, Zandbergen H. Localised corrosion in aluminium alloy 2024-T3 using in situ TEM. Chem Commun (Camb) 2013; 49:10859-61. [DOI: 10.1039/c3cc46673f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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44
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Malladi SRK, Xu Q, Tichelaar FD, Zandbergen HW, Hannour F, Mol JMC, Terryn H. Early stages during localized corrosion of AA2024 TEM specimens in chloride environment. SURF INTERFACE ANAL 2012. [DOI: 10.1002/sia.5193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Q. Xu
- Kavli Institute of Nanoscience, National Centre for HREM; Delft University of Technology; Lorentzweg 1; 2628 CJ; Delft; The Netherlands
| | - F. D. Tichelaar
- Kavli Institute of Nanoscience, National Centre for HREM; Delft University of Technology; Lorentzweg 1; 2628 CJ; Delft; The Netherlands
| | - H. W. Zandbergen
- Kavli Institute of Nanoscience, National Centre for HREM; Delft University of Technology; Lorentzweg 1; 2628 CJ; Delft; The Netherlands
| | - F. Hannour
- Tata Steel RD&T; 1970; CA; IJmuiden; The Netherlands
| | - J. M. C. Mol
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering; Delft University of Technology; Mekelweg 2; 2628CD; Delft; The Netherlands
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45
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Grunwaldt JD, Wagner JB, Dunin-Borkowski RE. Imaging Catalysts at Work: A Hierarchical Approach from the Macro- to the Meso- and Nano-scale. ChemCatChem 2012. [DOI: 10.1002/cctc.201200356] [Citation(s) in RCA: 125] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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