Effects of sonochemical approach and induced contraction of core-shell bismuth sulfide/graphitic carbon nitride as an efficient electrode materials for electrocatalytic detection of antibiotic drug in foodstuffs

Graphitic carbon nitride-based electrochemical sensors: A comprehensive review of their synthesis, characterization, and applications

Graphitic carbon nitride (g-C3N4) has garnered much attention as a promising 2D material in the realm of electrochemical sensors. It contains a polymeric matrix that can serve as an economical and non-toxic electrode material for the detection of a diverse range of analytes. However, its performance is impeded by a relatively limited active surface area and inherent instability. Although electrochemistry involving metal-doped g-C3N4 nanomaterials is rapidly progressing, it remains relatively unexplored. The metal doping of g-C3N4 augments the electrochemically active surface area of the resulting electrode, which has the potential to significantly enhance electrode kinetics and bolster catalytic activity. Consequentially, the main objective of this review is to provide insight into the intricacies of synthesizing and characterizing metal-doped g-C3N4. Furthermore, we comprehensively delve into the fundamental attributes of electrochemical sensors based on metal-doped g-C3N4, with a specific focus on healthcare and environmental applications. These applications encompass a meticulous exploration of detecting biomolecules, drug molecules, and organic pollutants.

Carbon Nanomaterials-Based Novel Hybrid Platforms for Electrochemical Sensor Applications in Drug Analysis

Nowadays, the rapid improvements in the medical and pharmaceutical fields increase the diversity and use of drugs. However, problems such as the use of multiple or combined drugs in the treatment of diseases and insensible use of over-the-counter drugs have caused concerns about the side-effect profiles and therapeutic ranges of drugs and environmental contamination and pollution problems due to pharmaceuticals waste. Therefore, the analysis of drugs in various media such as biological, pharmaceutical, and environmental samples is an important topic of discussion. Electrochemical methods are advantageous for sensor applications due to their easy application, low cost, versatility, high sensitivity, and environmentally-friendliness. Carbon nanomaterials such as diamond-like carbon thin films, carbon nanotubes, carbon nanofibers, graphene oxide, and nanodiamonds are used to enhance the performance of the electrochemical sensors with catalytic effects. To further improve this effect, it is aimed to create hybrid platforms by using different carbon nanomaterials together or with materials such as conductive polymers and ionic liquids. In this review, the most used carbon nanoforms will be evaluated in terms of electrochemical characterizations and physicochemical properties. Furthermore, the effect of hybrid platforms developed in the most recent studies on electrochemical sensors will be examined and evaluated in terms of drug analysis studies in the last five years.

Nano-palladium-decorated bismuth sulfide microspheres on a disposable electrode integrated with smartphone-based electrochemical detection of nitrite in food samples

Nitrite (NO2-) is widely used as an additive to extend the shelf life of food products. Excessive nitrite intake not only causes blood-related diseases but also has the potential risk of causing cancers. A disposable screen-printed electrode was modified with nano‑palladium decorated bismuth sulfide microspheres (nanoPd@Bi2S3MS/SPE), and integrated with a smartphone-interfaced potentiostat to develop a portable, electrochemical nitrite sensor. NanoPd@Bi2S3MS was prepared by the hydrothermal reduction of a Bi2S3MS and Pd2+ dispersion and drop cast on the SPE. The nanoPd@Bi2S3MS/SPE was coupled with a smartphone-controlled portable potentiostat and applied to determine nitrite in food samples. The linear range of the sensor was 0.01-500 μM and the limit of detection was 0.0033 μM. The proposed system showed good repeatability, reproducibility, catalytic stability, and immunity to interferences. The proposed electrode material and a smartphone-based small potentiostat created a simple, portable, fast electrochemical sensing system that accurately measured nitrite in food samples.

Highly dispersed redox antimony oxide pairs for accurate detection and electrochemistry-controlled recovery toward an antibiotic drug: Sulfadiazine

BACKGROUND

Sulfadiazine (SDZ) is a broad-spectrum antibiotic widely used in aquaculture and animal husbandry and it is easy to remain in the water system to damage the human body. Therefore, detection and removal of sulfadiazine in water systems become critical. Nowadays, catalysts and visible light are used to degrade sulfadiazine into smaller molecules containing N and S to reduce toxicity. However, these small molecules are easily released into water and the atmosphere to be the acid rain. Therefore, it is urgent to design a sensor with the ability to detect and remove SDZ at the same time. (96) RESULTS: We designed a novel composite catalyst sensor (Sb6O13@LTA GCE) with the ability to simultaneously monitor and remove sulfadiazine. The catalyst is generated by introducing SbCl5 into the reactive gel of LTA (Linde Type A) structure zeolite. In the hydrothermal reaction, the corrosive SbCl5 is transferred into nanosized Sb6O13 nanoparticle which is highly dispersed in the opening nano-scaled windows of the zeolite through redox and self-assembled progress. In the selected electrochemical overpotential range, the Sb6O13@LTA composited modified electrode could complete adsorption and desorption of SDZ through the electron transfer from Sb3+ to Sb5+. As the catalyst is in high stability, the only loss in the whole process of recovering SDZ is a small amount of electric energy. The extra-low detection limit and the removal efficiency of Sb6O13@LTA GCE have been achieved 4.0 pM and 19.3 mg/20 mg (136) SIGNIFICANCE: The prepared novel sensor has low detection limit, high removal efficiency and high selectivity for sulfadiazine. The Sb6O13@LTA GCE sensor, which is low-cost and has a simple preparation method, exhibits good reproducibility in both seawater and cell fluid. This provides the possibility for wide application in detecting and removing SDZ in water system. (53).

Coral-like, self-assembled, and spatially bounded Ag nano-particles on franzinite zeolite composite sensor toward accurate, synergetic, and ultra-trace sulfadiazine detection

A coral-like Ag@FRA zeolite nanocomposite sensor reveals high sensitivity toward sulfadiazine (SDZ) in a dual detection of fluorescence and electrochemistry. The sensor has been as-synthesized in the hydrothermal condition through a one-pot self-assembly process in which the high crystalline Ag nanoparticles (NPs) are closely arranged and stacked on the nanosized surface cage window of the FRA (Franzinite) zeolite. Strong ultrasound can drive the coral-like composite release Ag nanoparticles whose distribution range mainly from 10 to 12 nm lead to the purple fluorescence in an emission spectrum. In sea water, the fluorescence increases linearly in the SDZ concentration range of 5 × 10-18-5 × 10-10 M. Furthermore, the LOD (limit of detection) reaches 1.4 × 10-22 M by the spatial confinement effect of the coral-liked FRA cage structure in CV (cyclic voltammetry) method at the characteristic potential peak position of 0.1 V vs. SCE. The theoretical calculation also confirms that the FRA cage structure matches well with the SDZ molecules. Further studies indicate the generation of a novel stable composite sensor with high specificity, good recovery and repeatability, which depends on the induction of silver ions upon the artificial synthesis of FRA.

Effect of ultrasound power on HCl leaching kinetics of impurity removal of aphanitic graphite

This study aimed to investigate the effect of ultrasonic power and temperature on the impurity removal rate during conventional and ultrasonic-assisted leaching of aphanitic graphite. The results showed that the ash removal rate increased gradually (∼50 %) with the increase in ultrasonic power and temperature but deteriorated at high power and temperature. The unreacted shrinkage core model was found to fit the experimental results better than other models. The Arrhenius equation was used to calculate the finger front factor and activation energy under different ultrasonic power conditions. The ultrasonic leaching process was significantly influenced by temperature, and the enhancement of the leaching reaction rate constant by ultrasound was mainly reflected in the increase of the pre-exponential factor A. Ultrasound treatment improved the efficiency of impurity mineral removal by destroying the inert layer formed on the graphite surface, promoting particle fragmentation, and generating oxidation radicals. The poor reactivity of hydrochloric acid with quartz and some silicate minerals is a bottleneck limiting the further improvement of impurity removal efficiency in ultrasound-assisted aphanitic graphite. Finally, the study suggests that introducing fluoride salts may be a promising method for deep impurity removal in the ultrasound-assisted hydrochloric acid leaching process of aphanitic graphite.

Theoretical Sensing Performance for Detection of Cyclophosphamide Drug by Using Aluminum Carbide (C3Al) Monolayer: a DFT Study

Because nanomaterials are highly reactive and electronically sensitive towards a variety of drug molecules, they are thought of as efficient drug sensors. In the present research study, an aluminum carbide (C₃Al) monolayer is employed and its interaction is examined with cyclophosphamide (CP) by performing DFT computations. The C₃Al monolayer is highly reactive and sensitive towards CP according to the computations. CP interacts with the C₃Al monolayer with the adsorption energy of -31.39 kcal/mol. A considerable charge transfer (CT) indicates an enhancement in the conductivity. Also, the charge density is explained based on the electron density differences (EDD). The decrease in CP/C₃Al energy gap (E_g) by approximately 52.91% is due to the remarkable effect of adsorption on the LUMO and the HOMO levels. Therefore, due to the decrease in E_g which can generate an electrical signal, the electrical conductivity is considerably increased. These results suggest that the C₃Al monolayer can be employed as a proper electronic drug sensor for CP. Also, the recovery time for the desorption process of CP form the surface of C₃Al is 351 s at 598 K.

Sonochemical construction of hierarchical strontium doped lanthanum trisulfide electrocatalyst: An efficient electrode for highly sensitive detection of ecological pollutant in food and water

Herbicides are used constantly in agriculture to enhance productivity across the globe. This herbicide monitoring requires utmost importance since its high dose leads to ecological imbalance and a negative impact on the environment. Moreover, a quantification of toxic herbicide is one of the important problems in the food analysis. In this work, deals with the development of a simple, and facile one-pot sonochemical synthesis of strontium doped La2S3 (Sr@La2S3). Morphological and structural characterization confirms the doping of Sr@La2S3 to generate a hierarchical layered structure. The electrochemical performance of modified with rotating disk electrode (RDE) using Sr@La2S3 composite is high, compared to La2S3 and bare electrodes towards the quantitative detection of mesotrione (MTO) in phosphate buffer. Sr@La2S3/RDE showed good sensitivity for MTO detection and it exhibit a range of 0.01-307.01 μM and limit of detection of 2.4 nM. Besides, the selectivity of fabricated electrode is high as it can electrochemically reduce MTO particularly, even in the presence of other chemicals, biological molecules and inorganic ions. The repeatability of MTO detection is high even after 30 days with a lower RSD values. Hence, simple fabrication of Sr@La2S3/RDE could be a novel electrode for the sensitive, selective, and reproducible determination of herbicides in real-time applications.

Application of Graphene and its Derivatives in Detecting Hazardous Substances in Food: A Comprehensive Review

Graphene and its derivatives have been a burning issue in the last 10 years. Although many reviews described its application in electrochemical detection, few were focused on food detection. Herein, we reviewed the recent progress in applying graphene and composite materials in food detection during the past 10 years. We pay attention to food coloring materials, pesticides, antibiotics, heavy metal ion residues, and other common hazards. The advantages of graphene composites in electrochemical detection are described in detail. The differences between electrochemical detection involving graphene and traditional inherent food detection are analyzed and compared in depth. The results proved that electrochemical food detection based on graphene composites is more beneficial. The current defects and deficiencies in graphene composite modified electrode development are discussed, and the application prospects and direction of graphene in future food detection are forecasted.

Past and Present of Electrochemical Sensors and Methods for Amphenicol Antibiotic Analysis

Amphenicols are broad-spectrum antibiotics. Despite their benefits, they also present toxic effects and therefore their presence in animal-derived food was regulated. Various analytical methods have been reported for their trace analysis in food and environmental samples, as well as in the quality control of pharmaceuticals. Among these methods, the electrochemical ones are simpler, more rapid and cost-effective. The working electrode is the core of any electroanalytical method because the selectivity and sensitivity of the determination depend on its surface activity. Therefore, this review offers a comprehensive overview of the electrochemical sensors and methods along with their performance characteristics for chloramphenicol, thiamphenicol and florfenicol detection, with a focus on those reported in the last five years. Electrode modification procedures and analytical applications of the recently described devices for amphenicol electroanalysis in various matrices (pharmaceuticals, environmental, foods), together with the sample preparation methods were discussed. Therefore, the information and the concepts contained in this review can be a starting point for future new findings in the field of amphenicol electrochemical detection.

Electrochemical Sensing of Roxarsone on Natural Biomass-Derived Two-Dimensional Carbon Material as Promising Electrode Material

Herein, we report the electrochemical detection of roxarsone (ROX) on a two-dimensional (2D) activated carbon (AC)-modified glassy carbon electrode (GCE). Meso/microporous 2D-AC is synthesized from a natural biomass Desmostachya bipinnata, commonly known as Kusha in India. This environment-friendly material is synthesized by chemical activation using potassium hydroxide (KOH) and used as a sensitive electrochemical platform for the determination of ROX. It is an arsenic-based medicine, also used as a coccidiostat drug. It is widely used in poultry production as a feed additive to increase weight gain and improve feed efficiency. Long-term exposure to arsenic leads to serious health problems in humans and demands an urgent call for sensitive detection of ROX. Therefore, the green synthesis of 2D-AC is introduced as new carbon support for the electrochemical sensing of ROX. It provides a large surface area and efficiently supports enhanced electron transfer. Its electrocatalytic activity is seen in potassium ferri/ferrocyanide by cyclic voltammetry, where the 2D-AC-modified GCE delivered five to six times higher electrochemical performance as compared to the unmodified GCE. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy is also performed to show that the prepared material has faster electron transfer and permits a diffusion-controlled process. It works well in real samples and also on disposable screen-printed carbon electrodes, thereby showing great potential for its application in clinical diagnosis. Our results exemplify a modest and innovative style for the synthesis of excellent electrode material in the electrochemical sensing platform and thus offer an inexpensive and highly sensitive novel approach for the electrochemical sensing of ROX and other similar drugs.

Selective Electrochemical Sensing Platform Based on the Synergy between Carbon Black and Single-Crystalline Bismuth Sulfide for Rapid Analysis of Antipyretic Drugs

Nanomaterials are of significant interest in acetaminophen (APAP) detection in pharmaceutical samples. Herein, a carbon black/single-crystalline rodlike bismuth sulfide (CB/Bi₂S₃) composite prepared by an ultrasonic method is reported and utilized for the rapid analysis of APAP. The highly oriented edge reactive sites of the CB/Bi₂S₃ composite promoted synergy and good electrochemical sensing performance with a fast electron transfer rate and low overpotential (0.35 V). Therefore, a CB/Bi₂S₃ composite-modified glassy carbon electrode (GCE) was applied to the selective determination of APAP by the voltammetric technique. The CB/Bi₂S₃ composite-modified electrode showed the lowest limit of detection of APAP (1.9 nM) with excellent sensitivity. The proposed CB/Bi₂S₃/GCE platform exhibited high selectivity, excellent stability (87.15%), and reproducibility. Also, the CB/Bi₂S₃/GCE sensor was then successfully used to analyze an APAP pharmaceutical sample and exhibited satisfactory outcomes. Therefore, the CB/Bi₂S₃-modified GCE sensor platform would be a low-cost and robust GCE electrode material for APAP detection.

Flexible and integrated dual carbon sensor for multiplexed detection of nonylphenol and paroxetine in tap water samples

Multiplex detection of emerging pollutants is essential to improve quality control of water treatment plants, which requires portable systems capable of real-time monitoring. In this paper we describe a flexible, dual electrochemical sensing device that detects nonylphenol and paroxetine in tap water samples. The platform contains two voltammetric sensors, with different working electrodes that were either pretreated or functionalized. Each working electrode was judiciously tailored to cover the concentration range of interest for nonylphenol and paroxetine, and square wave voltammetry was used for detection. An electrochemical pretreatment with sulfuric acid on the printed electrode enabled a selective detection of nonylphenol in 1.0-10 × 10^-6 mol L^-1 range with a limit of detection of 8.0 × 10^-7 mol L^-1. Paroxetine was detected in the same range with a limit of detection of 6.7 × 10^-7 mol L^-1 using the printed electrode coated with a layer of carbon spherical shells. Simultaneous detection of the two analytes was achieved in tap water samples within 1 min, with no fouling and no interference effects. The long-term monitoring capability of the dual sensor was demonstrated in phosphate buffer for 45 days. This performance is statistically equivalent to that of high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) for water analysis. The dual-sensor platform is generic and may be extended to other water pollutants and clinical biomarkers in real-time monitoring of the environment and health conditions. Silver pseudo-reference electrodes for paroxetine (REP) and nonylphenol (REN), working electrodes for paroxetine (WP) and nonylphenol (WN), and auxiliary electrode (AE). USP refers to the University of Sao Paulo. "Red" is reduced form and "Oxi" is oxidized form of analytes.

Lanthanide type of cerium sulfide embedded carbon nitride composite modified electrode for potential electrochemical detection of sulfaguanidine

Environmental sustainability is threatened by the widespread exploitation and unfettered release of chemical pollutants that require immediate detection and eradication. An instantaneous quantification technique is essential to understand the physiological roles of the antibacterial drug sulfaguanidine (SGN) in biological systems. The present work features the green and environmentally benign synthesis of rare earth metal sulfide nanorods incorporated carbon nitrides sheets (Ce₂S₃@CNS) by deep eutectic solvent-based fabrication with remarkable electrochemical properties. The morphological and structural analyses of the prepared electrocatalyst were characterized using various techniques including SEM, XRD, XPS, and EIS. The heterojunction of regimented structures bids synergistic quantum confinement effects and refines charge carriers endorsing enormous active sites. Furthermore, the obtained Ce₂S₃@CNS/GCE possess an exceedingly lower limit of detection (0.0053 μM) and high sensitivity of 8.685 μA·μM^-1·cm^-2 with superior electrocatalytic action and virtuous stability for the detection of SGN. This modified electrode could afford linearity in the range 0.01-1131.5 μM measured at 0.95 V (vs. Ag/AgCl) correlated to the concentration of SGN. Examining the real samples with this advanced electrocatalyst would support its hands-on applications in everyday life. Development of such innovative architectures with fewer energy necessities and nominal by-products scripts the superiority in characteristic synthetic methodology following the guidelines of green chemistry.

Deep eutectic solvent synthesis of iron vanadate-decorated sulfur-doped carbon nanofiber nanocomposite: electrochemical sensing tool for doxorubicin

Detection of anticancer drug (doxorubicin) using an electrochemical sensor is developed based on a transition metal vanadate's related carbon composite material. With an environmentally friendly process, we have synthesized a metal oxide composite of iron vanadate nanoparticle assembled with sulfur-doped carbon nanofiber (FeV/SCNF). The FeV/SCNF composite was characterized using XRD, TEM, FESEM with elemental mapping, XPS and EDS. In contrast to other electrodes reported in the literature, a much-improved electrochemical efficiency is shown by FeV/SCNF composite modified electrodes. Amperometric technique has been employed at 0.25 V (vs. Ag/AgCl) for the sensitive detection of DOX within a wide range of 20 nM-542.5 μM and it possesses enhanced selectivity in presence of common interferents. The modified electrochemical sensors show high sensitivity of 46.041 μA μM^-1 cm^-2. The newly developed sensor could be used for the determination of doxorubicin in both blood serum and drug formulations with acceptable results, suggesting its feasibility for real-time applications.

Hydrothermally synthesized cubical zinc manganite nanostructure for electrocatalytic detection of sulfadiazine

An electrocatalyst modified electrode has been investigated to develop the rapid detection of antibiotics. The modified electrocatalyst was intended for the determination of sulfadiazine (SFZ) in biological fluids by electrochemical methods. Nanocube of zinc manganite (ZnMn₂O₄-NC) is prepared by hydrothermal method and a glassy carbon electrode (GCE) has been modified with the zinc manganite. The ZnMn₂O₄/GCE exhibit enhanced detection performances towards SFZ drug owing to their selective adsorption ability and the combination of electrostatic attraction of nanocube with SFZ. The modified electrocatalyst shows excellent electrocatalytic interactions with antibiotic drug. Besides, the modified sensors exhibit nanomolar detection limit (0.0021 μM) in 0.05 M phosphate buffer (pH = 7.0) using differential pulse voltammetric method. The working range of the modified electrode is 0.008-1264 μM, and the sensitivity of the SFZ sensor is 11.44 μA μM^-1 cm^-2. The modified sensor stability and reproducibility performances have been examined by electrochemical method. In addition, the obtained results of real sample analysis with different concentrations of SFZ in biological fluids are satisfactory with good recovery.

A disposable electrode modified with metal orthovanadate and sulfur-reduced graphene oxide for electrochemical detection of

CVO@SRG composite was prepared by a hydrothermal method and the voltammetric measurement of an organic compound.