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Nunez CM, Benn JS, Blue-McLendon A, Chaki SP, Ficht TA, Rice-Ficht AC, Cook WE. In Vitro Protection and Titer Duration of Anthrax-Specific Antibodies Following Subcutaneous Vaccination of White-tailed Deer (Odocoileus virginianus) with Bacillus anthracis Sterne 34F2 Strain Spores. J Wildl Dis 2024; 60:179-183. [PMID: 37921658 DOI: 10.7589/jwd-d-23-00019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2023] [Accepted: 09/20/2023] [Indexed: 11/04/2023]
Abstract
Outbreaks of anthrax, caused by the soilborne bacterium Bacillus anthracis, are a continuous threat to free-ranging livestock and wildlife in enzootic regions of the United States, sometimes causing mass mortalities. Injectable anthrax vaccines are commercially available for use in livestock, and although hand injection is not a cost- or time-effective long-term management plan for prevention in wildlife, it may provide a tool for managers to target selectively animals of high conservation or economic value. Vaccine-induced anthrax-specific antibody responses have been reported previously in white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), but the protective nature was not determined. In this study, five white-tailed deer were subcutaneously vaccinated with one dose (1 mL) of the Anthrax Spore Vaccine. Eight blood collections by jugular venipuncture were conducted over 146 d to measure the anthrax-specific antibody response in each deer's serum over time. Antibodies were first detected by ELISA and later with toxin neutralization assays to estimate in vitro protection. Average peak absorbance by ELISA occurred at 14 d postvaccination, whereas average peak in vitro protection occurred at 28 d postvaccination. Observed in vitro protection on average for white-tailed deer after this single-dose vaccination protocol lasted 42-56 d postvaccination, although three individuals still maintained lethal toxin-neutralizing serum antibody titers out to 112 d postvaccination. Vaccination responses were variable but effective to some degree in all white-tailed deer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chase M Nunez
- Cook Wildlife Lab, Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Texas A&M University, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, College Station, Texas 77843, USA
- These authors contributed equally to the work
| | - Jamie S Benn
- Cook Wildlife Lab, Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Texas A&M University, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, College Station, Texas 77843, USA
- Current address: Caesar Kleberg Wildlife Research Institute, Texas A&M University-Kingsville, 700 University Blvd., MSC 218, Kingsville, Texas 78363, USA
- These authors contributed equally to the work
| | - Alice Blue-McLendon
- Winnie Carter Wildlife Center, Department of Veterinary Pharmacology and Physiology, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77843, USA
| | - Sankar P Chaki
- Global Health Research Complex, Division of Research, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77843, USA
| | - Thomas A Ficht
- Ficht Encapsulation Lab, Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77843, USA
| | - Allison C Rice-Ficht
- Ficht Encapsulation Lab, Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77843, USA
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Medicine, Texas A&M Health Science Center, College Station, Texas 77843, USA
| | - Walter E Cook
- Cook Wildlife Lab, Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Texas A&M University, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, College Station, Texas 77843, USA
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2
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Bakhteeva I, Timofeev V. Some Peculiarities of Anthrax Epidemiology in Herbivorous and Carnivorous Animals. LIFE (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 12:life12060870. [PMID: 35743901 PMCID: PMC9224990 DOI: 10.3390/life12060870] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2022] [Revised: 06/06/2022] [Accepted: 06/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Anthrax is an especially dangerous zooanthroponosis caused by the Gram-positive spore-forming bacterium Bacillus anthracis. A notable feature of this disease is the difference in susceptibility to it among different groups of animals. Anthrax primarily affects herbivorous ungulate mammals; they are easily infected, and their disease often leads to rapid, even sudden, death. However, predators and scavengers are extremely resistant to anthrax, and if they become infected, they usually become mildly ill. As the result of the increased sensitivity of ungulates to anthrax and the possibility of disease transmission from them to humans, most studies of anthrax have focused on the diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of infection in farm animals and humans. The issues of anthrax in other animals, such as predators, and the peculiarities of anthrax epidemiology in wild ungulates have not been sufficiently detailed in the literature. In this article, we provide a review of literature sources that describe the differential susceptibility to infection of various groups of animals to anthrax and some epidemiological features of anthrax in animals that are not the main hosts of B. anthracis.
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3
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Portas R, Aschenborn OHK, Melzheimer J, Le Roux M, Uiseb KH, Czirják GÁ, Wachter B. GPS Telemetry Reveals a Zebra With Anthrax as Putative Cause of Death for Three Cheetahs in the Namib Desert. Front Vet Sci 2021; 8:714758. [PMID: 34490403 PMCID: PMC8417783 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2021.714758] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2021] [Accepted: 07/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Anthrax is a bacterial disease caused by Bacillus anthracis that affects wildlife, livestock and also humans in different parts of the world. It is endemic in some parts of Africa, including Namibia, with species differing in their susceptibility to the disease. Carnivores are typically less susceptible to anthrax than herbivores. Most carnivore species survive infection and have high seroprevalence against anthrax, whereas most herbivore species have low seroprevalence and typically die quickly when infected. Several reports have shown that cheetahs, unlike most other large carnivores, are susceptible to anthrax leading to a sudden death. This finding was suggested to be linked to the low genetic variability of cheetahs which might reduce an adequate immune response and thus explain such a high susceptibility to the disease. Here, we report an incidence of three free-ranging cheetahs that died within 24 h after feeding on a mountain zebra that tested positive for anthrax in the Namib Desert. We were able to reconstruct this incidence with the data recorded in the GPS (Global Positioning System) collar worn by one of the cheetahs and retrieved in the field. It is very likely that the cheetahs died from anthrax, although Bacillus anthracis could not be isolated from tissue and soil samples by bacterial culturing. The mountain zebra is the first described case of a wild animal that tested positive for anthrax in this arid area in southwestern of Namibia. We discuss the negative laboratory results of the cheetahs in the light of new insights of their immune system and its potential to mount a response against this bacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruben Portas
- Department of Evolutionary Ecology, Leibniz Institute for Zoo and Wildlife Research, Berlin, Germany
| | | | - Joerg Melzheimer
- Department of Evolutionary Ecology, Leibniz Institute for Zoo and Wildlife Research, Berlin, Germany
| | - Manie Le Roux
- Ministry of Environment, Forestry and Tourism, Directorate of Wildlife and National Parks, Windhoek, Namibia
| | - Kenneth Heinrich Uiseb
- Ministry of Environment, Forestry and Tourism, Directorate of Scientific Services, Windhoek, Namibia
| | - Gábor Árpád Czirják
- Department of Wildlife Diseases, Leibniz Institute for Zoo and Wildlife Research, Berlin, Germany
| | - Bettina Wachter
- Department of Evolutionary Ecology, Leibniz Institute for Zoo and Wildlife Research, Berlin, Germany
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4
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Sarmah H, Hazarika R, Tamuly S, Deka P, Manoharan S, Sharma RK. Evaluation of different antigenic preparations against necrotic enteritis in broiler birds using a novel Clostridium perfringens type G strain. Anaerobe 2021; 70:102377. [PMID: 33957249 DOI: 10.1016/j.anaerobe.2021.102377] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2020] [Revised: 04/09/2021] [Accepted: 04/17/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Keeping in view, the constraints faced by the Indian broiler industry with lack of a suitable vaccine against Necrotic Enteritis (NE), a study has been proposed to explore the prevalence and detail characterization of C. perfringens type G in NE suspected broiler chicken in the process of suitable vaccine development. METHODS Intestinal scrapings/faecal contents of NE suspected broiler chickens were screened to establish the prevalence of C.perfringens type G in broiler birds. A most pathogenic, highly resistant type G isolate of C. perfringens, bearing both tpeL and gapC gene was selected for preparation of three different vaccine formulations, and to evaluate their immunogenic potential in broiler birds. RESULTS Screening of clinical samples of NE suspected broiler birds revealed C. perfringens type G, bearing gapC gene in 51.22% samples, of which 47.62% revealed tpeL gene. Seven of the tpeLpos type G isolates were comparatively more pathogenic for mice, of which, one exhibited multidrug resistance towards ciprofloxacin, norfloxacin, tetracycline and levofloxacin. The sonicated supernatant (SS) prepared from the selected tpeL and gapC positive isolate could maintain a significantly higher protective IgG response than toxoid and bacterin preparation from the 21st to 28thday of age in immunized birds. CONCLUSION The additional TpeL toxin in C. perfringens type G has been proved to be an additional key biological factor in the pathogenesis of NE in broiler chickens. Considering the release of more immunogenic proteins, the SS proved to be a better immunogenic preparation against NE with a multiple immunization dose.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiramoni Sarmah
- Department of Microbiology, College of Veterinary Science, AAU., Khanapara, Guwahati, Assam, India
| | - Ritam Hazarika
- Department of Microbiology, College of Veterinary Science, AAU., Khanapara, Guwahati, Assam, India
| | - Shantonu Tamuly
- Department of Animal Biochemistry, College of Veterinary Science, AAU., Khanapara, Guwahati, Assam, India
| | - Pankaj Deka
- Department of Microbiology, College of Veterinary Science, AAU., Khanapara, Guwahati, Assam, India
| | - Seeralan Manoharan
- Vaccine Research Centre-Bacterial Vaccines, Centre for Animal Health Studies, TANUVAS, Chennai, India
| | - Rajeev K Sharma
- Department of Microbiology, College of Veterinary Science, AAU., Khanapara, Guwahati, Assam, India.
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Carlson CJ, Kracalik IT, Ross N, Alexander KA, Hugh-Jones ME, Fegan M, Elkin BT, Epp T, Shury TK, Zhang W, Bagirova M, Getz WM, Blackburn JK. The global distribution of Bacillus anthracis and associated anthrax risk to humans, livestock and wildlife. Nat Microbiol 2019; 4:1337-1343. [PMID: 31086311 DOI: 10.1038/s41564-019-0435-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 122] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2018] [Accepted: 03/22/2019] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Bacillus anthracis is a spore-forming, Gram-positive bacterium responsible for anthrax, an acute infection that most significantly affects grazing livestock and wild ungulates, but also poses a threat to human health. The geographic extent of B. anthracis is poorly understood, despite multi-decade research on anthrax epizootic and epidemic dynamics; many countries have limited or inadequate surveillance systems, even within known endemic regions. Here, we compile a global occurrence dataset of human, livestock and wildlife anthrax outbreaks. With these records, we use boosted regression trees to produce a map of the global distribution of B. anthracis as a proxy for anthrax risk. We estimate that 1.83 billion people (95% credible interval (CI): 0.59-4.16 billion) live within regions of anthrax risk, but most of that population faces little occupational exposure. More informatively, a global total of 63.8 million poor livestock keepers (95% CI: 17.5-168.6 million) and 1.1 billion livestock (95% CI: 0.4-2.3 billion) live within vulnerable regions. Human and livestock vulnerability are both concentrated in rural rainfed systems throughout arid and temperate land across Eurasia, Africa and North America. We conclude by mapping where anthrax risk could disrupt sensitive conservation efforts for wild ungulates that coincide with anthrax-prone landscapes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Colin J Carlson
- National Socio-Environmental Synthesis Center, University of Maryland, Annapolis, MD, USA.,Department of Biology, Georgetown University, Washington, Washington DC, USA
| | - Ian T Kracalik
- Spatial Epidemiology & Ecology Research Lab, Department of Geography, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA.,Emerging Pathogens Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Noam Ross
- EcoHealth Alliance, New York, NY, USA
| | - Kathleen A Alexander
- Department of Fish and Wildlife Conservation, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, USA
| | - Martin E Hugh-Jones
- School of the Coast and Environment, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, USA
| | - Mark Fegan
- AgriBio, Centre for Agribiosciences, Biosciences Research, Department of Economic Development, Jobs, Transport and Resources, Bundoora, Victoria, Australia
| | - Brett T Elkin
- Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Government of the Northwest Territories, Yellowknife, Northwest Territories, Canada
| | - Tasha Epp
- Department of Large Animal Clinical Sciences, Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada
| | - Todd K Shury
- Parks Canada Agency, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada
| | - Wenyi Zhang
- Center for Disease Surveillance & Research, Institute of Disease Control and Prevention of PLA, Beijing, China
| | | | - Wayne M Getz
- Department of Environmental Science, Policy, and Management, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Jason K Blackburn
- Spatial Epidemiology & Ecology Research Lab, Department of Geography, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA. .,Emerging Pathogens Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA.
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6
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Shaheenur Islam SK, Chakma S, Taslima Akhter AHM, Ibrahim N, Talukder F, Chowdhuary GA. Investigation of animal anthrax outbreaks in the human-animal interface at risky districts of Bangladesh during 2016-2017. J Adv Vet Anim Res 2018; 5:397-404. [PMID: 31453149 PMCID: PMC6702904 DOI: 10.5455/javar.2018.e290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2018] [Revised: 09/05/2018] [Accepted: 08/06/2018] [Indexed: 11/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective The objective of the study was to explore the outbreak situation in terms of animal, place, and time towards minimizing the risk of animal infection at the source in future and subsequent spillover in human in the endemic rural settings. Methodology An outbreak investigation team from the Department of Livestock Services visited in each of the outbreak sites to explore the event towards strengthening the control program in the future. Meat samples of the infected slaughtered animals were collected to confirm the causal agent of the animal outbreak using polychrome methylene blue microscopic examination technique. Participatory epidemiology tool such as semi-structured interview had been used in these investigations to realize the knowledge and practices of local people/cattle keepers on anthrax control and prevention in animal and human as well. Results All identified affected human cases had been confirmed as a history of contact with the animal carcasses or handling/processing with infected meat. The level of awareness at the community level was not satisfactory for the prevention and control of anthrax at the source and further spillover in human. The infected slaughtered animals found to be in non-vaccinated status during the outbreak investigation and uncontrolled animal movement is considered to be responsible for new outbreaks in a vaccinated zone where enforcement of veterinary legislation is inadequate. Conclusion A comprehensive preparedness and response strategy is to be obligatory for prevention, control and respond on anthrax in Bangladesh. Maximum vaccination coverage in the animal, increase community awareness of animal and human anthrax are also demanded for transmission of anthrax from animal to human.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Shovon Chakma
- Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), Emergency Center for Transboundary Animal Disease (ECTAD), Bangladesh
| | - A H M Taslima Akhter
- FAO Food Safety Program, Food and Agriculture Organization, IPH Building, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Nelima Ibrahim
- Department of Livestock Services, KrishiKhamar Sarak, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Faisol Talukder
- FETP, B fellow (3rd Cohort) Institute of Epidemiology, Disease Control and Research (IEDCR), Dhaka, Bangladesh
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7
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Ndumnego OC, Koehler SM, Crafford JE, Beyer W, van Heerden H. Immunogenicity of anthrax recombinant peptides and killed spores in goats and protective efficacy of immune sera in A/J mouse model. Sci Rep 2018; 8:16937. [PMID: 30446695 PMCID: PMC6240085 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-35382-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2018] [Accepted: 11/02/2018] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Anthrax is primarily recognized as an affliction of herbivores with incubation period ranging from three to five days post-infection. Currently, the Sterne live-spore vaccine is the only vaccine approved for control of the disease in susceptible animals. While largely effective, the Sterne vaccine has several problems including adverse reactions in sensitive species, ineffectiveness in active outbreaks and incompatibility with antibiotics. These can be surmounted with the advent of recombinant peptides (non-living) next generation vaccines. The candidate vaccine antigens comprised of recombinant protective antigen (PA), spore-specific antigen (bacillus collagen-like protein of anthracis, BclA) and formaldehyde inactivated spores (FIS). Presently, little information exists on the protectivity of these novel vaccine candidates in susceptible ruminants. Thus, this study sought to assess the immunogenicity of these vaccine candidates in goats and evaluate their protectivity using an in vivo mouse model. Goats receiving a combination of PA, BclA and FIS yielded the highest antibody and toxin neutralizing titres compared to recombinant peptides alone. This was also reflected in the passive immunization experiment whereby mice receiving immune sera from goats vaccinated with the antigen combination had higher survival post-challenge. In conclusion, the current data indicate promising potential for further development of non-living anthrax vaccines in ruminants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Okechukwu C Ndumnego
- Department of Veterinary Tropical Diseases, University of Pretoria, Onderstepoort, South Africa. .,Africa Health Research Institute, Durban, South Africa.
| | - Susanne M Koehler
- Institute of Animal Science, Department of Livestock Infectiology and Environmental Hygiene, University of Hohenheim, Stuttgart, Germany.,Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Jannie E Crafford
- Department of Veterinary Tropical Diseases, University of Pretoria, Onderstepoort, South Africa
| | - Wolfgang Beyer
- Institute of Animal Science, Department of Livestock Infectiology and Environmental Hygiene, University of Hohenheim, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Henriette van Heerden
- Department of Veterinary Tropical Diseases, University of Pretoria, Onderstepoort, South Africa.
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8
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Simbotwe M, Fujikura D, Ohnuma M, Omori R, Furuta Y, Muuka GM, Hang’ombe BM, Higashi H. Development and application of a Bacillus anthracis protective antigen domain-1 in-house ELISA for the detection of anti-protective antigen antibodies in cattle in Zambia. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0205986. [PMID: 30335853 PMCID: PMC6193699 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0205986] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2018] [Accepted: 10/04/2018] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
In Zambia, anthrax outbreaks among cattle are reported on nearly an annual basis. Presently, there is a lack of serological assays and information to develop an anthrax management and control strategy. In this study, an indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) based on recombinant protective antigen domain 1 (rPA-D1) of Bacillus anthracis was developed and used to detect anti-PA antibodies in cattle in Zambia. An antigen coating of 10 ng/well and a serum dilution of 1:100 were determined to be the optimal rPA-D1 ELISA titration conditions. The intra- and inter-assay % coefficients of variation were less than 10% and 15%, respectively. The rPA-D1 ELISA could detect seroconversion in the cattle 1 month after anthrax vaccination. In a cross-sectional study conducted in the Western Province, Zambia, 187 serum samples from 8 herds of cattle were screened for anti-PA antibodies using the rPA-D1 ELISA. The seropositive rate of the serum samples was 8%, and the mean anti-PA antibody was 0.358 ELISA units. Additionally, we screened 131 cattle serum samples from Lusaka, which is a nonendemic area, and found no significant association between the antibody levels and sampling area (endemic versus nonendemic area). Conversely, significant differences were observed between the anti-PA antibody levels and herds, anti-PA antibody levels and vaccination status and anti-PA antibody levels and vaccination timing. Collectively, these findings suggest that the rPA-D1 ELISA is a useful tool for the detection of anti-PA antibodies in cattle in Zambia. The low proportion of seropositive sera indicates that there is inadequate cattle vaccination in the Western Province and, in addition to other epidemiological factors, this may precipitate the anthrax outbreak recurrence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manyando Simbotwe
- Division of Infection and Immunity, Research Center for Zoonosis Control, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
- Graduate School of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Daisuke Fujikura
- Division of Infection and Immunity, Research Center for Zoonosis Control, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
- Asahikawa Medical University Education Research Promotion Center, Asahikawa, Japan
| | - Miyuki Ohnuma
- Division of Infection and Immunity, Research Center for Zoonosis Control, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Ryosuke Omori
- Graduate School of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
- Division of Bioinformatics, Research Center for Zoonosis Control, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Yoshikazu Furuta
- Division of Infection and Immunity, Research Center for Zoonosis Control, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
- Graduate School of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Geoffrey Munkombwe Muuka
- Bacteriology Section, Central Veterinary Research Institute, Ministry of Fisheries and Livestock, Lusaka, Zambia
| | | | - Hideaki Higashi
- Division of Infection and Immunity, Research Center for Zoonosis Control, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
- Graduate School of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
- Hokudai Center for Zoonosis Control in Zambia, Lusaka, Zambia
- * E-mail:
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9
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Lekota KE, Hassim A, Rogers P, Dekker EH, Last R, de Klerk-Lorist L, van Heerden H. The reporting of a Bacillus anthracis B-clade strain in South Africa after more than 20 years. BMC Res Notes 2018; 11:264. [PMID: 29716659 PMCID: PMC5930959 DOI: 10.1186/s13104-018-3366-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2018] [Accepted: 04/20/2018] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Anthrax is a disease with an age old history in Africa caused by the Gram-positive endospore forming soil bacterium Bacillus anthracis. Epizootics of wild ungulates occur annually in the enzootic region of Pafuri, Kruger National Park (KNP) in the Limpopo Province of South Africa. Rigorous routine surveillance and diagnostics in KNP, has not revealed these rare isolates since the 1990s, despite unabated annual outbreaks. In 2011 a cheetah was diagnosed as anthrax positive from a private game reserve in Limpopo Province and reported to State Veterinary Services for further investigation. Isolation, molecular diagnostics, whole genome sequencing and comparative genomics were carried out for B. anthracis KC2011. RESULTS Bacteriological and molecular diagnostics confirmed the isolate as B. anthracis. Subsequent typing and whole genome single nucleotide polymorphisms analysis indicated it clustered alongside B. anthracis SA A0091 in the B.Br.010 SNP branch. Unlike B. anthracis KrugerB strain, KC2011 strain has unique SNPs and represents a new branch in the B-clade. The isolation and genotypic characterisation of KC2011 demonstrates a gap in the reporting of anthrax outbreaks in the greater Limpopo province area. The identification of vulnerable and susceptible cheetah mortalities due to this strain has implications for conservation measures and disease control.
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Affiliation(s)
- K E Lekota
- Department of Veterinary Tropical Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, Onderstepoort, South Africa. .,College of Agriculture and Environmental Sciences, University of South Africa, Christiaan De Wet/Pioneer Dr., Florida, South Africa.
| | - A Hassim
- Department of Veterinary Tropical Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, Onderstepoort, South Africa
| | - P Rogers
- Provet Wildlife Services, Raptors Safari Junction, Main Road, Hoedspruit, South Africa
| | - E H Dekker
- State Veterinary Services, Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, Skukuza, South Africa
| | - R Last
- Vetdiagnostix-Veterinary Pathology Services, 257 Boshoff Street, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa
| | - L de Klerk-Lorist
- State Veterinary Services, Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, Skukuza, South Africa
| | - H van Heerden
- Department of Veterinary Tropical Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, Onderstepoort, South Africa
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10
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Terio KA, Mitchell E, Walzer C, Schmidt-Küntzel A, Marker L, Citino S. Diseases Impacting Captive and Free-Ranging Cheetahs. CHEETAHS: BIOLOGY AND CONSERVATION 2018. [PMCID: PMC7148644 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-804088-1.00025-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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11
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Phaswana PH, Ndumnego OC, Koehler SM, Beyer W, Crafford JE, van Heerden H. Use of the mice passive protection test to evaluate the humoral response in goats vaccinated with Sterne 34F2 live spore vaccine. Vet Res 2017; 48:46. [PMID: 28882176 PMCID: PMC5590180 DOI: 10.1186/s13567-017-0451-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2017] [Accepted: 06/19/2017] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
The Sterne live spore vaccine (34F2) is the most widely used veterinary vaccine against anthrax in animals. Antibody responses to several antigens of Bacillus anthracis have been described with a large focus on those against protective antigen (PA). The focus of this study was to evaluate the protective humoral immune response induced by the live spore anthrax vaccine in goats. Boer goats vaccinated twice (week 0 and week 12) with the Sterne live spore vaccine and naive goats were used to monitor the anti-PA and toxin neutralizing antibodies at week 4 and week 17 (after the second vaccine dose) post vaccination. A/J mice were passively immunized with different dilutions of sera from immune and naive goats and then challenged with spores of B. anthracis strain 34F2 to determine the protective capacity of the goat sera. The goat anti-PA ELISA titres indicated significant sero-conversion at week 17 after the second doses of vaccine (p = 0.009). Mice receiving undiluted sera from goats given two doses of vaccine (twice immunized) showed the highest protection (86%) with only 20% of mice receiving 1:1000 diluted sera surviving lethal challenge. The in vitro toxin neutralization assay (TNA) titres correlated to protection of passively immunized A/J mice against lethal infection with the vaccine strain Sterne 34F2 spores using immune goat sera up to a 1:10 dilution (rs ≥ 0.522, p = 0.046). This study suggests that the passive mouse protection model could be potentially used to evaluate the protective immune response in livestock animals vaccinated with the current live vaccine and new vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- P H Phaswana
- Department of Veterinary Tropical Diseases, University of Pretoria, Onderstepoort, 0110, South Africa
| | - O C Ndumnego
- Department of Veterinary Tropical Diseases, University of Pretoria, Onderstepoort, 0110, South Africa.,Africa Health Research Institute, K-RITH Tower Building, Umbilo Road, Durban, 4013, South Africa
| | - S M Koehler
- Department of Livestock Infectiology and Environmental Hygiene, Institute of Animal Science, University of Hohenheim, Emil-Wolff-Strasse 14, 70599, Stuttgart, Germany.,Robert Koch Institute, Nordufer 20, 13353, Berlin, Germany
| | - W Beyer
- Department of Livestock Infectiology and Environmental Hygiene, Institute of Animal Science, University of Hohenheim, Emil-Wolff-Strasse 14, 70599, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - J E Crafford
- Department of Veterinary Tropical Diseases, University of Pretoria, Onderstepoort, 0110, South Africa
| | - H van Heerden
- Department of Veterinary Tropical Diseases, University of Pretoria, Onderstepoort, 0110, South Africa.
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Switzer A, Munson L, Beesley C, Wilkins P, Blackburn JK, Marker L. Namibian Farmland Cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) Demonstrate Seronegativity for Antibodies Against Bacillus anthracis. AFRICAN JOURNAL OF WILDLIFE RESEARCH 2016. [DOI: 10.3957/056.046.0139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/01/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra Switzer
- UC Davis School of Veterinary Medicine, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA 95616, U.S.A
| | - Linda Munson
- UC Davis School of Veterinary Medicine, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA 95616, U.S.A
| | - Cari Beesley
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Rd, Atlanta, GA 30333, U.S.A
| | - Patricia Wilkins
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1600 Clifton Rd, Atlanta, GA 30333, U.S.A
| | - Jason K. Blackburn
- Spatial Epidemiology & Ecology Research Laboratory, Department of Geography, University of Florida, 3141 Turlington Hall, Gainesville, FL 32611, U.S.A
| | - Laurie Marker
- Cheetah Conservation Fund, P.O. Box 1755, Otjiwarongo, Namibia
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Adone R, Sali M, Francia M, Iatarola M, Donatiello A, Fasanella A. Development of a Sterne-Based Complement Fixation Test to Monitor the Humoral Response Induced by Anthrax Vaccines. Front Microbiol 2016; 7:19. [PMID: 26858700 PMCID: PMC4729949 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2016.00019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2015] [Accepted: 01/11/2016] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Anthrax is a zoonotic disease caused by Bacillus anthracis spore-forming bacterium. Since it is primarily a disease of animals, the control in animals, and humans depend on the prevention in livestock, principally cattle, sheep, and goats. Most veterinary vaccines utilize the toxigenic, uncapsulated (pXO1+/pXO2–) B. anthracis strain 34F2 which affords protection through the production of neutralizing antibodies directed to the toxin components Protective Antigen (PA), Lethal Factor (LF), and Edema Factor (EF). The titration of specific antibodies in sera of vaccinated animals is crucial to evaluate the efficacy of the vaccination and to obtain epidemiological information for an effective anthrax surveillance. In this study, we developed a Sterne-based Complement Fixation Test (CFT) to detect specific antibodies induced in animals vaccinated with Sterne 34F2. We assessed its efficacy in laboratory animals and under field conditions by monitoring the humoral response induced by vaccination in cattle. The results indicated that the Sterne-based CFT is able to correctly identify vaccinated animals. It proved to be a very sensitive and specific test. Moreover, the Sterne-based CFT offers many benefits with regard to costs, standardization and reproducibility of the assay procedure.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Michela Sali
- Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore Rome, Italy
| | | | - Michela Iatarola
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Puglia e Basilicata, National Reference Centre for Anthrax Foggia, Italy
| | - Adelia Donatiello
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Puglia e Basilicata, National Reference Centre for Anthrax Foggia, Italy
| | - Antonio Fasanella
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Puglia e Basilicata, National Reference Centre for Anthrax Foggia, Italy
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Palmer MV, Thacker TC, Waters WR, Robbe-Austerman S. Oral vaccination of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) with Mycobacterium bovis Bacillus Calmette-Guerin (BCG). PLoS One 2014; 9:e97031. [PMID: 24804678 PMCID: PMC4013142 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0097031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2014] [Accepted: 04/14/2014] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Wildlife reservoirs of Mycobacterium bovis represent serious obstacles to the eradication of tuberculosis from livestock, particularly cattle. In Michigan, USA tuberculous white-tailed deer transmit M. bovis to other deer and cattle. One approach in dealing with this wildlife reservoir is to vaccinate deer, thus interfering with the intraspecies and interspecies transmission cycles. Thirty-three white-tailed deer were assigned to one of two groups; oral vaccination with 1 × 10(8) colony-forming units of M. bovis BCG Danish (n = 17); and non-vaccinated (n = 16). One hundred eleven days after vaccination deer were infected intratonsilarly with 300 colony-forming units of virulent M. bovis. At examination, 150 days after challenge, BCG vaccinated deer had fewer gross and microscopic lesions, fewer tissues from which M. bovis could be isolated, and fewer late stage granulomas with extensive liquefactive necrosis. Fewer lesions, especially those of a highly necrotic nature should decrease the potential for dissemination of M. bovis within the host and transmission to other susceptible hosts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mitchell V. Palmer
- National Animal Disease Center, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Ames, Iowa, United States of America
| | - Tyler C. Thacker
- National Animal Disease Center, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Ames, Iowa, United States of America
| | - W. Ray Waters
- National Animal Disease Center, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Ames, Iowa, United States of America
| | - Suelee Robbe-Austerman
- National Veterinary Services Laboratories, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Ames, Iowa, United States of America
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Cizauskas CA, Bellan SE, Turner WC, Vance RE, Getz WM. Frequent and seasonally variable sublethal anthrax infections are accompanied by short-lived immunity in an endemic system. J Anim Ecol 2014; 83:1078-90. [PMID: 24499424 DOI: 10.1111/1365-2656.12207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2013] [Accepted: 01/25/2014] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Few studies have examined host-pathogen interactions in wildlife from an immunological perspective, particularly in the context of seasonal and longitudinal dynamics. In addition, though most ecological immunology studies employ serological antibody assays, endpoint titre determination is usually based on subjective criteria and needs to be made more objective. Despite the fact that anthrax is an ancient and emerging zoonotic infectious disease found world-wide, its natural ecology is not well understood. In particular, little is known about the adaptive immune responses of wild herbivore hosts against Bacillus anthracis. Working in the natural anthrax system of Etosha National Park, Namibia, we collected 154 serum samples from plains zebra (Equus quagga), 21 from springbok (Antidorcas marsupialis) and 45 from African elephants (Loxodonta africana) over 2-3 years, resampling individuals when possible for seasonal and longitudinal comparisons. We used enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays to measure anti-anthrax antibody titres and developed three increasingly conservative models to determine endpoint titres with more rigourous, objective mensuration. Between 52 and 87% of zebra, 0-15% of springbok and 3-52% of elephants had measurable anti-anthrax antibody titres, depending on the model used. While the ability of elephants and springbok to mount anti-anthrax adaptive immune responses is still equivocal, our results indicate that zebra in ENP often survive sublethal anthrax infections, encounter most B. anthracis in the wet season and can partially booster their immunity to B. anthracis. Thus, rather than being solely a lethal disease, anthrax often occurs as a sublethal infection in some susceptible hosts. Though we found that adaptive immunity to anthrax wanes rapidly, subsequent and frequent sublethal B. anthracis infections cause maturation of anti-anthrax immunity. By triggering host immune responses, these common sublethal infections may act as immunomodulators and affect population dynamics through indirect immunological and co-infection effects. In addition, with our three endpoint titre models, we introduce more mensuration rigour into serological antibody assays, even under the often-restrictive conditions that come with adapting laboratory immunology methods to wild systems. With these methods, we identified significantly more zebras responding immunologically to anthrax than have previous studies using less comprehensive titre analyses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carrie A Cizauskas
- Department of Environmental Science, Policy & Management, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA.,Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA
| | - Steven E Bellan
- Department of Environmental Science, Policy & Management, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA.,Center for Computational Biology and Informatics, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA
| | - Wendy C Turner
- Department of Environmental Science, Policy & Management, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA.,Department of Biosciences, Centre for Ecological and Evolutionary Synthesis, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Russell E Vance
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Wayne M Getz
- Department of Environmental Science, Policy & Management, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA.,School of Mathematical Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa
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16
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Ndumnego OC, Crafford J, Beyer W, van Heerden H. Quantitative anti-PA IgG ELISA; assessment and comparability with the anthrax toxin neutralization assay in goats. BMC Vet Res 2013; 9:265. [PMID: 24373579 PMCID: PMC3892015 DOI: 10.1186/1746-6148-9-265] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2013] [Accepted: 12/20/2013] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Presently, few data exist on the level and duration of anti-protective antigen (PA) IgG in vaccinated livestock. Various adaptation of enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) have been developed in studies to assess immune response following vaccination, albeit mostly in laboratory rodent models. The quantitative anti-anthrax IgG ELISA in this study describes a method of enumerating the concentration of anti-PA specific IgG present in sera of immunized goats, with the aid of an affinity-purified caprine polyclonal anti-anthrax PA-83 IgG standard. This was compared with the anthrax toxin neutralization assay (TNA) which measures a functional subset of toxin neutralizing anti-PA IgG. RESULTS The measured concentrations obtained in the standard curve correlated with the known concentration at each dilution. Percentage recovery of the standard concentrations ranged from 89 to 98% (lower and upper asymptote respectively). Mean correlation coefficient (r2) of the standard curve was 0.998. Evaluation of the intra-assay coefficient of variation showed ranges of 0.23-16.90% and 0.40-12.46% for days 28 and 140 sera samples respectively, following vaccination. The mean inter-assay coefficient of variation for triplicate samples repeated on 5 different days was 18.53 and 12.17% for days 28 and 140 sera samples respectively. Spearman's rank correlation of log-transformed IgG concentrations and TNA titres showed strong positive correlation (rs = 0.942; p = 0.01). CONCLUSION This study provides evidence that an indirect ELISA can be used for the quantification of anti-anthrax PA IgG in goats with the added advantage of using single dilutions to save time and resources. The use of such related immunoassays can serve as potential adjuncts to potency tests for Sterne and other vaccine types under development in ruminant species. This is the first report on the correlation of polyclonal anti-anthrax PA83 antibody with the TNA in goats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Okechukwu C Ndumnego
- Department of Veterinary Tropical Diseases, University of Pretoria, Onderstepoort 0110, South Africa
| | - Jannie Crafford
- Department of Veterinary Tropical Diseases, University of Pretoria, Onderstepoort 0110, South Africa
| | - Wolfgang Beyer
- Institute of Environmental and Animal Hygiene, University of Hohenheim, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Henriette van Heerden
- Department of Veterinary Tropical Diseases, University of Pretoria, Onderstepoort 0110, South Africa
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Islam MS, Hossain MJ, Mikolon A, Parveen S, Khan MSU, Haider N, Chakraborty A, Titu AMN, Rahman MW, Sazzad HMS, Rahman M, Gurley ES, Luby SP. Risk practices for animal and human anthrax in Bangladesh: an exploratory study. Infect Ecol Epidemiol 2013; 3:21356. [PMID: 24298326 PMCID: PMC3843109 DOI: 10.3402/iee.v3i0.21356] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2013] [Revised: 10/01/2013] [Accepted: 10/24/2013] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction From August 2009 to October 2010, International Centre for Diarrheal Disease Research, Bangladesh and the Institute of Epidemiology, Disease Control and Research together investigated 14 outbreaks of anthrax which included 140 animal and 273 human cases in 14 anthrax-affected villages. Our investigation objectives were to explore the context in which these outbreaks occurred, including livestock rearing practices, human handling of sick and dead animals, and the anthrax vaccination program. Methods Field anthropologists used qualitative data-collection tools, including 15 hours of unstructured observations, 11 key informant interviews, 32 open-ended interviews, and 6 group discussions in 5 anthrax-affected villages. Results Each cattle owner in the affected communities raised a median of six ruminants on their household premises. The ruminants were often grazed in pastures and fed supplementary rice straw, green grass, water hyacinth, rice husk, wheat bran, and oil cake; lactating cows were given dicalcium phosphate. Cattle represented a major financial investment. Since Islamic law forbids eating animals that die from natural causes, when anthrax-infected cattle were moribund, farmers often slaughtered them on the household premises while they were still alive so that the meat could be eaten. Farmers ate the meat and sold it to neighbors. Skinners removed and sold the hides from discarded carcasses. Farmers discarded the carcasses and slaughtering waste into ditches, bodies of water, or open fields. Cattle in the affected communities did not receive routine anthrax vaccine due to low production, poor distribution, and limited staffing for vaccination. Conclusion Slaughtering anthrax-infected animals and disposing of butchering waste and carcasses in environments where ruminants live and graze, combined with limited vaccination, provided a context that permitted repeated anthrax outbreaks in animals and humans. Because of strong financial incentives, slaughtering moribund animals and discarding carcasses and waste products will likely continue. Long-term vaccination coverage for at-risk animal populations may reduce anthrax infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Md Saiful Islam
- Centre for Communicable Diseases, International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Dhaka, Bangladesh
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ANTE- AND POSTMORTEM DIAGNOSTIC TECHNIQUES FOR ANTHRAX: RETHINKING PATHOGEN EXPOSURE AND THE GEOGRAPHIC EXTENT OF THE DISEASE IN WILDLIFE. J Wildl Dis 2013; 49:786-801. [DOI: 10.7589/2013-05-126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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A three-dose intramuscular injection schedule of anthrax vaccine adsorbed generates sustained humoral and cellular immune responses to protective antigen and provides long-term protection against inhalation anthrax in rhesus macaques. CLINICAL AND VACCINE IMMUNOLOGY : CVI 2012; 19:1730-45. [PMID: 22933399 DOI: 10.1128/cvi.00324-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
A 3-dose (0, 1, and 6 months) intramuscular (3-IM) priming series of a human dose (HuAVA) and dilutions of up to 1:10 of anthrax vaccine adsorbed (AVA) provided statistically significant levels of protection (60 to 100%) against inhalation anthrax for up to 4 years in rhesus macaques. Serum anti-protective antigen (anti-PA) IgG and lethal toxin neutralization activity (TNA) were detectable following a single injection of HuAVA or 1:5 AVA or following two injections of diluted vaccine (1:10, 1:20, or 1:40 AVA). Anti-PA and TNA were highly correlated (overall r(2) = 0.89 for log(10)-transformed data). Peak responses were seen at 6.5 months. In general, with the exception of animals receiving 1:40 AVA, serum anti-PA and TNA responses remained significantly above control levels at 28.5 months (the last time point measured for 1:20 AVA), and through 50.5 months for the HuAVA and 1:5 and 1:10 AVA groups (P < 0.05). PA-specific gamma interferon (IFN-γ) and interleukin-4 (IL-4) CD4(+) cell frequencies and T cell stimulation indices were sustained through 50.5 months (the last time point measured). PA-specific memory B cell frequencies were highly variable but, in general, were detectable in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) by 2 months, were significantly above control levels by 7 months, and remained detectable in the HuAVA and 1:5 and 1:20 AVA groups through 42 months (the last time point measured). HuAVA and diluted AVA elicited a combined Th1/Th2 response and robust immunological priming, with sustained production of high-avidity PA-specific functional antibody, long-term immune cell competence, and immunological memory (30 months for 1:20 AVA and 52 months for 1:10 AVA). Vaccinated animals surviving inhalation anthrax developed high-magnitude anamnestic anti-PA IgG and TNA responses.
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Chakraborty A, Khan SU, Hasnat MA, Parveen S, Islam MS, Mikolon A, Chakraborty RK, Ahmed BN, Ara K, Haider N, Zaki SR, Hoffmaster AR, Rahman M, Luby SP, Hossain MJ. Anthrax outbreaks in Bangladesh, 2009-2010. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2012; 86:703-10. [PMID: 22492157 DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.2012.11-0234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
During August 2009-October 2010, a multidisciplinary team investigated 14 outbreaks of animal and human anthrax in Bangladesh to identify the etiology, pathway of transmission, and social, behavioral, and cultural factors that led to these outbreaks. The team identified 140 animal cases of anthrax and 273 human cases of cutaneous anthrax. Ninety one percent of persons in whom cutaneous anthrax developed had history of butchering sick animals, handling raw meat, contact with animal skin, or were present at slaughtering sites. Each year, Bacillus anthracis of identical genotypes were isolated from animal and human cases. Inadequate livestock vaccination coverage, lack of awareness of the risk of anthrax transmission from animal to humans, social norms and poverty contributed to these outbreaks. Addressing these challenges and adopting a joint animal and human health approach could contribute to detecting and preventing such outbreaks in the future.
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Cross ML, Buddle BM, Aldwell FE. The potential of oral vaccines for disease control in wildlife species. Vet J 2006; 174:472-80. [PMID: 17113798 DOI: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2006.10.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2006] [Revised: 09/29/2006] [Accepted: 10/05/2006] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Numerous infectious diseases caused by bacteria or viruses persist in developed and developing countries due to ongoing transmission among wildlife reservoir species. Such diseases become the target of control and management programmes in cases where they represent a threat to public health (for example rabies, sylvatic plague, Lyme disease), or livestock production (for example bovine tuberculosis, brucellosis, pseudorabies), or where they threaten the survival of endangered animal populations. In the majority of cases, lethal control operations are neither economically feasible nor publicly supported as a practical means for disease management. Prophylactic vaccination has emerged over the last 15 years as an alternative control strategy for wildlife diseases, mainly driven by the success of widescale oral rabies vaccination programmes for meso-carnivores in North America and Northern Europe. Different methods have been trialled for the effective delivery of wildlife vaccines in the field, however oral vaccination remains the most widely used approach. Successful implementation of an oral wildlife vaccine is dependent on a combination of three components: an efficacious immunogen, a suitable delivery vehicle, and a species-specific bait. This review outlines the major wildlife disease problems for which oral vaccination is currently under consideration as a disease management tool, and also focuses on the technological challenges that face wildlife vaccine development. The major conclusion is that attenuated or recombinant live microbes represent the most widely-used vaccines that can be delivered by the oral route; this in turn places major emphasis on effective delivery systems (to maintain vaccine viability), and on selective baiting systems, as the keys to wildlife vaccine success. Oral vaccination is a valuable adjunct or alternative strategy to culling for the control of diseases which persist in wildlife reservoirs.
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Affiliation(s)
- M L Cross
- Centre for Innovation, University of Otago, P.O. Box 56, Dunedin, New Zealand.
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