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Song Z, Jiao L, Wang D, Qiu Y, Miao J, Zhu T, Yu R, Wang Z, Zhou Y, Cai T, Zhang S, Liu H, Sun H, Sun Y, Liu Z. Controlling the speed of antigens transport in dendritic cells improves humoral and cellular immunity for vaccine. Biomed Pharmacother 2024; 177:117036. [PMID: 38941888 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2024.117036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2024] [Revised: 06/20/2024] [Accepted: 06/24/2024] [Indexed: 06/30/2024] Open
Abstract
Vaccines are an effective intervention for preventing infectious diseases. Currently many vaccine strategies are designed to improve vaccine efficacy by controlling antigen release, typically involving various approaches at the injection site. Yet, strategies for intracellular slow-release of antigens in vaccines are still unexplored. Our study showed that controlling the degradation of antigens in dendritic cells and slowing their transport from early endosomes to lysosomes markedly enhances both antigen-specific T-cell immune responses and germinal center B cell responses. This leads to the establishment of sustained humoral and cellular immunity in vivo imaging and flow cytometry indicated this method not only prolongs antigen retention at the injection site but also enhances antigen concentration in lymph nodes, surpassing traditional Aluminium (Alum) adjuvants. Additionally, we demonstrated that the slow antigen degradation induces stronger follicular helper T cell responses and increases proportions of long-lived plasma cells and memory B cells. Overall, these findings propose that controlling the speed of antigens transport in dendritic cells can significantly boost vaccine efficacy, offering an innovative avenue for developing highly immunogenic next-generation vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zuchen Song
- Institute of Traditional Chinese Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210095, PR China; MOE Joint International Research Laboratory of Animal Health and Food Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210095, PR China
| | - Lina Jiao
- Institute of Traditional Chinese Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210095, PR China; MOE Joint International Research Laboratory of Animal Health and Food Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210095, PR China
| | - Deyun Wang
- Institute of Traditional Chinese Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210095, PR China; MOE Joint International Research Laboratory of Animal Health and Food Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210095, PR China
| | - Yawei Qiu
- MOE Joint International Research Laboratory of Animal Health and Food Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210095, PR China
| | - Jinfeng Miao
- MOE Joint International Research Laboratory of Animal Health and Food Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210095, PR China
| | - Tianyu Zhu
- Institute of Traditional Chinese Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210095, PR China; MOE Joint International Research Laboratory of Animal Health and Food Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210095, PR China
| | - Ruihong Yu
- Institute of Traditional Chinese Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210095, PR China; MOE Joint International Research Laboratory of Animal Health and Food Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210095, PR China
| | - Zheng Wang
- Institute of Traditional Chinese Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210095, PR China; MOE Joint International Research Laboratory of Animal Health and Food Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210095, PR China
| | - Yantong Zhou
- Institute of Traditional Chinese Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210095, PR China; MOE Joint International Research Laboratory of Animal Health and Food Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210095, PR China
| | - Ting Cai
- Ningbo Institute of Life and Health Industry, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Ningbo, Zhejiang, PR China
| | - Shun Zhang
- Ningbo Institute of Life and Health Industry, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Ningbo, Zhejiang, PR China
| | - Huina Liu
- Ningbo Institute of Life and Health Industry, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Ningbo, Zhejiang, PR China
| | - Haifeng Sun
- Key Laboratory of Bacteriology, Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210095, PR China
| | - Yuechao Sun
- Ningbo Institute of Life and Health Industry, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Ningbo, Zhejiang, PR China
| | - Zhenguang Liu
- Institute of Traditional Chinese Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210095, PR China; MOE Joint International Research Laboratory of Animal Health and Food Safety, College of Veterinary Medicine, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210095, PR China.
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AboulFotouh K, Xu H, Moon C, Williams RO, Cui Z. Development of (Inhalable) Dry Powder Formulations of AS01 B-Containing Vaccines Using Thin-Film Freeze-Drying. Int J Pharm 2022; 622:121825. [PMID: 35577037 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2022.121825] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2022] [Revised: 05/07/2022] [Accepted: 05/09/2022] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
AS01B is a liposomal formulation of two immunostimulants namely 3-O-desacyl-4́-monophosphoryl lipid A (MPL) and QS-21. The liposomal formulation of AS01B reduces the endotoxicity of MPL and the lytic activity of QS-21. The AS01B-adjuvanted Shingrix vaccine is marketed in a two-vial presentation, with the liquid AS01B liposomes in one vial and the antigen as a dry powder in another vial. In the present study, we tested the feasibility of applying thin-film freeze-drying (TFFD) to engineer dry powders of the AS01B liposomal adjuvant alone or vaccines containing AS01B as an adjuvant. Initially, we showed that after the AS01B liposomal adjuvant was subjected to TFFD using sucrose as a stabilizer at 4% w/v, the particle size distribution of AS01B liposomes reconstituted from the dry powder was identical to the liquid adjuvant before drying. We then showed using ovalbumin (OVA) as a model antigen adjuvanted with AS01B (AS01B/OVA) that subjecting the AS01B/OVA vaccine to TFFD and subsequent reconstitution did not negatively affect the AS01B liposome particle size, nor the immunogenicity of the vaccine. Importantly, the thin-film freeze-dried AS01B/OVA vaccine, unlike its liquid counterpart, was not sensitive to repeated freezing-and-thawing. The developed AS01B/OVA dry powder also showed the desirable aerosol properties (i.e., fine particle fraction of 66.3 ± 4.9% and mass median aerodynamic diameter of 2.4 ± 0.1 µm) for potential pulmonary administration. Finally, the feasibility of using TFFD to prepare dry powders of AS01B-adjuvanted vaccines was further confirmed using AS01B-adjuvanted Fluzone Quadrivalent and Shingrix, which contains AS01B. It is concluded that the TFFD technology can enable the formulation of AS01B-adjuvanted vaccines as freezing-insensitive, inhalable dry powders in a single-vial presentation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Khaled AboulFotouh
- Division of Molecular Pharmaceutics and Drug Delivery, College of Pharmacy, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712, USA; Department of Pharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmacy, Assiut University, Assiut 71526, Egypt
| | - Haiyue Xu
- Division of Molecular Pharmaceutics and Drug Delivery, College of Pharmacy, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712, USA
| | - Chaeho Moon
- Division of Molecular Pharmaceutics and Drug Delivery, College of Pharmacy, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712, USA
| | - Robert O Williams
- Division of Molecular Pharmaceutics and Drug Delivery, College of Pharmacy, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712, USA.
| | - Zhengrong Cui
- Division of Molecular Pharmaceutics and Drug Delivery, College of Pharmacy, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712, USA.
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Lee JC, Janda KD. Immunopharmacotherapeutic advancements in addressing methamphetamine abuse. RSC Chem Biol 2021; 2:77-93. [PMID: 34458776 PMCID: PMC8341824 DOI: 10.1039/d0cb00165a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2020] [Accepted: 10/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Methamphetamine (METH) is an illicit psychostimulant that is known to account for substance abuse disorders globally, second only to opioids, yet has no approved pharmacotherapies. Traditional therapies employ small molecule agonists or antagonists for substance use disorders or overdose reversal by targeting drug-specific receptors in the brain. However, the comprehensive mechanism of METH on multiple sites within the central nervous system (CNS) implies its receptors lack the high affinity and specificity required for an "ideal" drug target. The alternative to pharmacotherapies is to sequester abused drugs in the periphery, effectively eliminating the effects from CNS receptor occupation through pharmacokinetic antagonism. This review presents updates on immunopharmacotherapeutic advancements in addressing methamphetamine abuse by focusing on the cultivation of research optimization strategies regarding hapten chemistry, carrier proteins, and adjuvants implemented in active immunization. Furthermore, we discuss necessary developments for each component of active immunopharmacotherapies and the future of active vaccines in treating METH use disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinny Claire Lee
- Department of Chemistry, Department of Immunology and Microbial Science, The Skaggs Institute for Chemical Biology, The WIRM Institute for Research & Medicine, The Scripps Research Institute 10550 North Torrey Pines Rd La Jolla CA 92037 USA
| | - Kim D Janda
- Department of Chemistry, Department of Immunology and Microbial Science, The Skaggs Institute for Chemical Biology, The WIRM Institute for Research & Medicine, The Scripps Research Institute 10550 North Torrey Pines Rd La Jolla CA 92037 USA
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Rao M, Peachman KK, Alving CR. Liposome Formulations as Adjuvants for Vaccines. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 2021; 433:1-28. [PMID: 33165871 DOI: 10.1007/82_2020_227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Development of liposome-based formulations as vaccine adjuvants has been intimately associated with, and dependent on, and informed by, a fundamental understanding of biochemical and biophysical properties of liposomes themselves. The Walter Reed Army Institute of Research (WRAIR) has a fifty-year history of experience of basic research on liposomes; and development of liposomes as drug carriers; and development of liposomes as adjuvant formulations for vaccines. Uptake of liposomes by phagocytic cells in vitro has served as an excellent model for studying the intracellular trafficking patterns of liposomal antigen. Differential fluorescent labeling of proteins and liposomal lipids, together with the use of inhibitors, has enabled the visualization of physical locations of antigens, peptides, and lipids to elucidate mechanisms underlying the MHC class I and class II pathways in phagocytic APCs. Army Liposome Formulation (ALF) family of vaccine adjuvants, which have been developed and improved since 1986, and which range from nanosize to microsize, are currently being employed in phase 1 studies with different types of candidate vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mangala Rao
- Chief, Laboratory of Adjuvant & Antigen Research, U.S. Military HIV Research Program, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, 503 Robert Grant Avenue, Silver Spring, MD, 20910, USA.
| | - Kristina K Peachman
- Laboratory of Adjuvant & Antigen Research, U.S. Military HIV Research Program, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, 503 Robert Grant Avenue, Silver Spring, MD, 20910, USA
| | - Carl R Alving
- Laboratory of Adjuvant & Antigen Research, U.S. Military HIV Research Program, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, 503 Robert Grant Avenue, Silver Spring, MD, 20910, USA
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Minz S, Pandey RS. Lipid A adjuvanted Chylomicron Mimicking Solid Fat Nanoemulsions for Immunization Against Hepatitis B. AAPS PharmSciTech 2018; 19:1168-1181. [PMID: 29243216 DOI: 10.1208/s12249-017-0932-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2017] [Accepted: 11/27/2017] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Traditional parenteral recombinant hepatitis B virus (HBV) vaccines have effectively reduced the disease burden despite being able to induce seroprotective antibody titers in 5-10% vaccinated individuals (non-responders). Moreover, an estimated 340 million chronic HBV cases are in need of treatment. Development of safe, stable, and more effective hepatitis B vaccine formulation would address these challenges. Recombinant hepatitis B surface antigen (rHBsAg) entrapped solid fat nanoemulsions (SFNs) containing monophosphoryl lipid A (MPLA) that was prepared and optimized by quality by design (QbD) using response surface methodology (RSM), i.e., central composite design (CCD). Its immune potential was evaluated with preset immunization protocol in a murine model. Dose escalation study revealed that formulation containing 1 μg of rHBsAg entrapped SFNs with MPLA-induced significant higher humoral, and cellular response compared to the marketed vaccine (Genvac B) administered intramuscularly. SFNs with nanometric morphology and structural similarity with chylomicrons assist in improved uptake and processing to lymphatics. Moreover, the presence of an immunogenic component in its structure further augments delivery of rHBsAg to immune cells with induction of danger signals. This multi-adjuvant based approach explores new prospect for the dose sparing. Improved cellular immune response induced by this vaccine formulation suggests that it could be tested as an immunotherapeutic vaccine as well.
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Minz S, Kaurav M, Sahu KK, Mandal V, Pandey RS. Development and validation of TLC-densitometric method for determination of lipid A adjuvant as a bulk and in solid fat nanoemulsions. Biomed Chromatogr 2015; 29:1473-9. [DOI: 10.1002/bmc.3444] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2014] [Revised: 01/10/2015] [Accepted: 01/14/2015] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sunita Minz
- SLT Institute of Pharmaceutical sciences; Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya; Bilaspur C.G. 495009 India
| | - Monika Kaurav
- SLT Institute of Pharmaceutical sciences; Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya; Bilaspur C.G. 495009 India
| | - Kantrol Kumar Sahu
- SLT Institute of Pharmaceutical sciences; Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya; Bilaspur C.G. 495009 India
| | - Vivekananda Mandal
- SLT Institute of Pharmaceutical sciences; Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya; Bilaspur C.G. 495009 India
| | - Ravi Shankar Pandey
- SLT Institute of Pharmaceutical sciences; Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya; Bilaspur C.G. 495009 India
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Collins KC, Schlosburg JE, Lockner JW, Bremer PT, Ellis BA, Janda KD. Lipid tucaresol as an adjuvant for methamphetamine vaccine development. Chem Commun (Camb) 2014; 50:4079-81. [PMID: 24615284 DOI: 10.1039/c4cc00682h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
The immunopotentiator tucaresol was modified for incorporation into liposomes, where it was found to be a superior adjuvant to MPLA for vaccination against methamphetamine.
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Affiliation(s)
- K C Collins
- Departments of Chemistry, Immunology and Microbial Science, The Skaggs Institute for Chemical Biology, Worm Institute of Research and Medicine (WIRM), The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, California 92037, USA.
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Steers NJ, Currier JR, Jobe O, Tovanabutra S, Ratto-Kim S, Marovich MA, Kim JH, Michael NL, Alving CR, Rao M. Designing the epitope flanking regions for optimal generation of CTL epitopes. Vaccine 2014; 32:3509-16. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2014.04.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2013] [Revised: 01/15/2014] [Accepted: 04/17/2014] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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Alving CR, Rao M, Steers NJ, Matyas GR, Mayorov AV. Liposomes containing lipid A: an effective, safe, generic adjuvant system for synthetic vaccines. Expert Rev Vaccines 2012; 11:733-44. [PMID: 22873129 DOI: 10.1586/erv.12.35] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Liposomes containing monophosphoryl lipid A (MPLA) have previously exhibited considerable potency and safety in human trials with a variety of candidate vaccines, including vaccines to malaria, HIV-1 and several different types of cancer. The long history of research and development of MPLA and liposomal MPLA as vaccine adjuvants reveals that there are numerous opportunities for creation and development of generic (nonproprietary) adjuvant system formulations with these materials that are not only highly potent and safe, but also readily available as native materials or as synthetic compounds. They are easily manufactured as potentially inexpensive and easy to use adjuvant systems and might be effective even with synthetic peptides as antigens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carl R Alving
- Laboratory of Adjuvant and Antigen Research, US Military HIV Research Program, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, MD, USA.
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Joshi MD, Unger WJ, Storm G, van Kooyk Y, Mastrobattista E. Targeting tumor antigens to dendritic cells using particulate carriers. J Control Release 2012; 161:25-37. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2012.05.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 142] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2012] [Revised: 05/01/2012] [Accepted: 05/03/2012] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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Cell type-specific proteasomal processing of HIV-1 Gag-p24 results in an altered epitope repertoire. J Virol 2010; 85:1541-53. [PMID: 21106750 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01790-10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Proteasomes are critical for the processing of antigens for presentation through the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I pathway. HIV-1 Gag protein is a component of several experimental HIV-1 vaccines. Therefore, understanding the processing of HIV-1 Gag protein and the resulting epitope repertoire is essential. Purified proteasomes from mature dendritic cells (DC) and activated CD4(+) T cells from the same volunteer were used to cleave full-length Gag-p24 protein, and the resulting peptide fragments were identified by mass spectrometry. Distinct proteasomal degradation patterns and peptide fragments were unique to either mature DC or activated CD4(+) T cells. Almost half of the peptides generated were cell type specific. Two additional differences were observed in the peptides identified from the two cell types. These were in the HLA-B35-Px epitope and the HLA-B27-KK10 epitope. These epitopes have been linked to HIV-1 disease progression. Our results suggest that the source of generation of precursor MHC class I epitopes may be a critical factor for the induction of relevant epitope-specific cytotoxic T cells.
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Steers NJ, Peachman KK, McClain S, Alving CR, Rao M. Liposome-encapsulated HIV-1 Gag p24 containing lipid A induces effector CD4+ T-cells, memory CD8+ T-cells, and pro-inflammatory cytokines. Vaccine 2009; 27:6939-49. [PMID: 19748578 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2009.08.105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2009] [Revised: 08/26/2009] [Accepted: 08/27/2009] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Liposomal lipid A is an effective adjuvant for the delivery of antigens and for the induction of both cellular and humoral immunity. In this study, we demonstrate that following the third immunization with HIV-1 Gag p24 encapsulated in liposomes containing lipid A [L(p24+LA)], central memory CD8+ T-cells were localized in the spleen and lymph nodes of mice while effector memory CD8+ T-cells and effector CD4+ T-cells were found in the PBMC. Effector CD4+ T-cells were also detected in the spleen and lymph nodes. The predominant cytokine secreted from splenic lymphocytes and lymph nodes was IFN-gamma. In contrast, IL-6 and IL-10 were the major cytokines produced from PBMC. The peptide stimulation indicated that the cytokine responses observed were T-cell specific. The results demonstrate the importance of the adjuvant liposomal lipid A for the induction of HIV-1 Gag p24 -specific CD8+ T-cells, effector CD4+ T-cells, and cytokines with a Th-1 type profile after immunization with L(p24+LA).
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas J Steers
- Division of Retrovirology, USMHRP, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Rockville, MD 20850, USA
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Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 Gag p24 alters the composition of immunoproteasomes and affects antigen presentation. J Virol 2009; 83:7049-61. [PMID: 19403671 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00327-09] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Proteasomes are the major source of proteases responsible for the generation of peptides bound to major histocompatibility complex class I molecules. Antigens, adjuvants, and cytokines can modulate the composition and enzymatic activity of proteasomes and thus alter the epitopes generated. In the present study, we examined the effect of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) p24 on proteasomes from a dendritic cell line (JAWS II), from a macrophage cell line (C2.3), and from murine primary bone marrow-derived macrophages and dendritic cells. HIV-1 p24 downregulated PA28beta and the beta2i subunit of the immunoproteasome complex in JAWS II cells but did not decrease the immunoproteasome subunits in macrophages, whereas in primary dendritic cells, PA28alpha, beta2i, and beta5i were downregulated. Exposure of JAWS II cells and primary dendritic cells to HIV-1 p24 for 90 min significantly decreased the presentation of ovalbumin to a SIINFEKL-specific CD8(+) T-cell hybridoma. The decrease in antigen presentation and the downmodulation of the immunoproteasome subunits in JAWS II cells and primary dendritic cells could be overcome by pretreating the cells with gamma interferon for 6 h or by exposing the cells to HIV-1 p24 encapsulated in liposomes containing lipid A. These results suggest that early antigen processing kinetics could influence the immunogenicity of CD8(+) T-cell epitopes generated.
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