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Firstova VV, Shakhova AS, Riabko AK, Silkina MV, Zeninskaya NA, Romanenko YO, Marin MA, Rogozin MM, Kartseva AS, Dyatlov IA, Shemyakin IG. Characterization of the adaptive immune response of donors receiving live anthrax vaccine. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0260202. [PMID: 34928976 PMCID: PMC8687594 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0260202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2020] [Accepted: 11/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Live anthrax vaccine containing spores from attenuated strains STI-1 of Bacillus anthracis is used in Russia and former CIS (Commonwealth of Independent States) to prevent anthrax. In this paper we studied the duration of circulation of antibodies specific to spore antigens, the protective antigen (PA), the lethal factor (LF) and their domains (D) in donors’ blood at different times after their immunization with live anthrax vaccine. The relationship between the toxin neutralization activity level and the level of antibodies to PA, LF and their domains was tested. The effect of age, gender and number of vaccinations on the level of adaptive post-vaccination immune response has been studied. It was shown that antibodies against PA-D1 circulate in the blood of donors for 1 year or more after immunization with live anthrax vaccine. Antibodies against all domains of LF and PA-D4 were detected in 11 months after vaccination. Antibodies against the spores were detected in 8 months after vaccination. A moderate positive correlation was found between the titers of antibodies to PA, LF, or their domains, and the TNA of the samples of blood serum from the donors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victoria V. Firstova
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Federal Budget Institution of Science «State Research Center for Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology» of Federal Service of Consumer Right Surveillance & Human Welfare, Ministry of Health & Welfare, Obolensk, Moscow Region, Russian Federation
| | - Anastasia S. Shakhova
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Federal Budget Institution of Science «State Research Center for Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology» of Federal Service of Consumer Right Surveillance & Human Welfare, Ministry of Health & Welfare, Obolensk, Moscow Region, Russian Federation
| | - Alena K. Riabko
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Federal Budget Institution of Science «State Research Center for Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology» of Federal Service of Consumer Right Surveillance & Human Welfare, Ministry of Health & Welfare, Obolensk, Moscow Region, Russian Federation
- * E-mail:
| | - Marina V. Silkina
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Federal Budget Institution of Science «State Research Center for Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology» of Federal Service of Consumer Right Surveillance & Human Welfare, Ministry of Health & Welfare, Obolensk, Moscow Region, Russian Federation
| | - Natalia A. Zeninskaya
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Federal Budget Institution of Science «State Research Center for Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology» of Federal Service of Consumer Right Surveillance & Human Welfare, Ministry of Health & Welfare, Obolensk, Moscow Region, Russian Federation
| | - Yana O. Romanenko
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Federal Budget Institution of Science «State Research Center for Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology» of Federal Service of Consumer Right Surveillance & Human Welfare, Ministry of Health & Welfare, Obolensk, Moscow Region, Russian Federation
| | - Maksim A. Marin
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Federal Budget Institution of Science «State Research Center for Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology» of Federal Service of Consumer Right Surveillance & Human Welfare, Ministry of Health & Welfare, Obolensk, Moscow Region, Russian Federation
| | - Methun M. Rogozin
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Federal Budget Institution of Science «State Research Center for Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology» of Federal Service of Consumer Right Surveillance & Human Welfare, Ministry of Health & Welfare, Obolensk, Moscow Region, Russian Federation
| | - Alena S. Kartseva
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Federal Budget Institution of Science «State Research Center for Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology» of Federal Service of Consumer Right Surveillance & Human Welfare, Ministry of Health & Welfare, Obolensk, Moscow Region, Russian Federation
| | - Ivan A. Dyatlov
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Federal Budget Institution of Science «State Research Center for Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology» of Federal Service of Consumer Right Surveillance & Human Welfare, Ministry of Health & Welfare, Obolensk, Moscow Region, Russian Federation
| | - Igor G. Shemyakin
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Federal Budget Institution of Science «State Research Center for Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology» of Federal Service of Consumer Right Surveillance & Human Welfare, Ministry of Health & Welfare, Obolensk, Moscow Region, Russian Federation
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Smith K, Garman L, Norris K, Muther J, Duke A, Engler RJM, Nelson MR, Collins LC, Spooner C, Guthridge C, James JA. Insufficient Anthrax Lethal Toxin Neutralization Is Associated with Antibody Subclass and Domain Specificity in the Plasma of Anthrax-Vaccinated Individuals. Microorganisms 2021; 9:microorganisms9061204. [PMID: 34199431 PMCID: PMC8229884 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms9061204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2021] [Revised: 05/25/2021] [Accepted: 05/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Anthrax vaccine adsorbed (AVA) is a significant line of defense against bioterrorist attack from Bacillus anthracis spores. However, in a subset of individuals, this vaccine may produce a suboptimal quantity of anti-protective antigen (PA), antibodies that are poorly neutralizing, and/or antibody titers that wane over time, necessitating annual boosters. To study individuals with such poor responses, we examine the properties of anti-PA in a subset of vaccinated individuals that make significant quantities of antibody but are still unable to neutralize toxin. In this cohort, characterized by poorly neutralizing antibody, we find that increased IgG4 to IgG1 subclass ratios, low antibody avidity, and insufficient antibody targeting domain 4 associate with improper neutralization. Thus, future vaccines and vaccination schedules should be formulated to improve these deficiencies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenneth Smith
- Department of Arthritis and Clinical Immunology, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, 825 NE 13th St., Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA; (K.N.); (J.M.); (A.D.); (C.G.)
- Correspondence: (K.S.); (J.A.J.); Tel.: +1-405-271-3275 (K.S.); +1-405-271-4987 (J.A.J.)
| | - Lori Garman
- Department of Genes and Human Disease, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, 825 NE 13th St., Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA;
| | - Kathleen Norris
- Department of Arthritis and Clinical Immunology, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, 825 NE 13th St., Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA; (K.N.); (J.M.); (A.D.); (C.G.)
| | - Jennifer Muther
- Department of Arthritis and Clinical Immunology, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, 825 NE 13th St., Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA; (K.N.); (J.M.); (A.D.); (C.G.)
| | - Angie Duke
- Department of Arthritis and Clinical Immunology, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, 825 NE 13th St., Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA; (K.N.); (J.M.); (A.D.); (C.G.)
| | - Renata J. M. Engler
- Walter Reed National Military Medical Center, 8901 Wisconsin Ave, Bethesda, MD 20814, USA; (R.J.M.E.); (M.R.N.); (L.C.C.); (C.S.)
| | - Michael R. Nelson
- Walter Reed National Military Medical Center, 8901 Wisconsin Ave, Bethesda, MD 20814, USA; (R.J.M.E.); (M.R.N.); (L.C.C.); (C.S.)
| | - Limone C. Collins
- Walter Reed National Military Medical Center, 8901 Wisconsin Ave, Bethesda, MD 20814, USA; (R.J.M.E.); (M.R.N.); (L.C.C.); (C.S.)
| | - Christina Spooner
- Walter Reed National Military Medical Center, 8901 Wisconsin Ave, Bethesda, MD 20814, USA; (R.J.M.E.); (M.R.N.); (L.C.C.); (C.S.)
| | - Carla Guthridge
- Department of Arthritis and Clinical Immunology, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, 825 NE 13th St., Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA; (K.N.); (J.M.); (A.D.); (C.G.)
| | - Judith A. James
- Department of Arthritis and Clinical Immunology, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, 825 NE 13th St., Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA; (K.N.); (J.M.); (A.D.); (C.G.)
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Oklahoma University Health Science Center, 940 Stanton L. Young Blvd, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA
- Departments of Medicine and Pathology, Oklahoma University Health Science Center, 1000 Stanton L. Young Blvd, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA
- Correspondence: (K.S.); (J.A.J.); Tel.: +1-405-271-3275 (K.S.); +1-405-271-4987 (J.A.J.)
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Modi T, Gervais D, Smith S, Miller J, Subramaniam S, Thalassinos K, Shepherd A. Characterization of the UK anthrax vaccine and human immunogenicity. Hum Vaccin Immunother 2020; 17:747-758. [PMID: 32897798 PMCID: PMC7993152 DOI: 10.1080/21645515.2020.1799668] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
The manufacture of the UK Anthrax vaccine (AVP) focuses on the production of Protective Antigen (PA) from the Bacillus anthracis Sterne strain. Although used for decades, several of AVP’s fundamental properties are poorly understood, including its exact composition, the extent to which proteins other than PA may contribute to protection, and whether the degree of protection varies between individuals. This study involved three innovative investigations. Firstly, the composition of AVP was analyzed using liquid chromatography tandem mass-spectrometry (LC-MS/MS), requiring the development of a novel desorption method for releasing B. anthracis proteins from the vaccine’s aluminum-containing adjuvant. Secondly, computational MHC-binding predictions using NetMHCIIpan were made for the eight most abundant proteins of AVP, for the commonest HLA alleles in multiple ethnic groups, and for multiple B. anthracis strains. Thirdly, antibody levels and toxin neutralizing antibody (TNA) levels were measured in sera from AVP human vaccinees for both PA and Lethal Factor (LF). It was demonstrated that AVP is composed of at least 138 B. anthracis proteins, including PA (65%), LF (8%) and Edema Factor (EF) (3%), using LC-MS/MS. NetMHCIIpan predicted that peptides from all eight abundant proteins are likely to be presented to T cells, a pre-requisite for protection; however, the number of such peptides varied considerably between different HLA alleles. These analyses highlight two important properties of the AVP vaccine that have not been established previously. Firstly, the effectiveness of AVP within humans may not depend on PA alone; there is compelling evidence to suggest that LF has a protective role, with computational predictions suggesting that additional proteins may be important for individuals with specific HLA allele combinations. Secondly, in spite of differences in the sequences of key antigenic proteins from different B. anthracis strains, these are unlikely to affect the cross-strain protection afforded by AVP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tapasvi Modi
- Porton Biopharma Limited, Development, Porton Down, Salisbury, Wiltshire, UK
| | - David Gervais
- Porton Biopharma Limited, Development, Porton Down, Salisbury, Wiltshire, UK
| | - Stuart Smith
- Porton Biopharma Limited, Development, Porton Down, Salisbury, Wiltshire, UK
| | - Julie Miller
- Porton Biopharma Limited, Development, Porton Down, Salisbury, Wiltshire, UK
| | - Shaan Subramaniam
- Institute of Structural and Molecular Biology, Division of Biosciences, Darwin Building Room 101A, University College London, London, UK
| | - Konstantinos Thalassinos
- Institute of Structural and Molecular Biology, Division of Biosciences, Darwin Building Room 101A, University College London, London, UK.,Department of Biological Sciences and Institute of Structural and Molecular Biology, Birkbeck, University of London, London, UK
| | - Adrian Shepherd
- Department of Biological Sciences and Institute of Structural and Molecular Biology, Birkbeck, University of London, London, UK
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Toxin-neutralizing antibodies elicited by naturally acquired cutaneous anthrax are elevated following severe disease and appear to target conformational epitopes. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0230782. [PMID: 32294093 PMCID: PMC7159215 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0230782] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2019] [Accepted: 03/09/2020] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Understanding immune responses to native antigens in response to natural infections can lead to improved approaches to vaccination. This study sought to characterize the humoral immune response to anthrax toxin components, capsule and spore antigens in individuals (n = 46) from the Kayseri and Malatya regions of Turkey who had recovered from mild or severe forms of cutaneous anthrax infection, compared to regional healthy controls (n = 20). IgG antibodies to each toxin component, the poly-γ-D-glutamic acid capsule, the Bacillus collagen-like protein of anthracis (BclA) spore antigen, and the spore carbohydrate anthrose, were detected in the cases, with anthrax toxin neutralization and responses to Protective Antigen (PA) and Lethal Factor (LF) being higher following severe forms of the disease. Significant correlative relationships among responses to PA, LF, Edema Factor (EF) and capsule were observed among the cases. Though some regional control sera exhibited binding to a subset of the tested antigens, these samples did not neutralize anthrax toxins and lacked correlative relationships among antigen binding specificities observed in the cases. Comparison of serum binding to overlapping decapeptides covering the entire length of PA, LF and EF proteins in 26 cases compared to 8 regional controls revealed that anthrax toxin-neutralizing antibody responses elicited following natural cutaneous anthrax infection are directed to conformational epitopes. These studies support the concept of vaccination approaches that preserve conformational epitopes.
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Mirhaj H, Honari H, Zamani E. Evaluation of immune response to recombinant Bacillus anthracis LFD1-PA4 chimeric protein. IRANIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY RESEARCH 2019; 20:112-119. [PMID: 31531033 PMCID: PMC6716276] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2018] [Revised: 12/27/2018] [Accepted: 01/01/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Anthrax is a particularly dangerous infectious disease that affects humans and livestock. Efficacious vaccines that can rapidly induce a long-term immune response are required to prevent anthrax infection in humans. Domains 4 and 1 of the protective antigen (PA) and lethal factor (LF), respectively, have very high antigenic properties. AIMS In this experimental study, the pET28a-lfD1-pa4 expression vector was designed, constructed and transferred into E. coli BL21 (DE3) plysS. METHODS For this purpose, pa4 gene was amplified by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and cloned in a pGEM T-easy vector. The pGEM-pa4 and pGEM-lfD1 were digested by XbaI and HindIII enzymes. The ligation reaction was performed by ligase T4 enzyme and the gene cassette, lfD1-pa4, was subcloned in pET28a and transferred to E. coli BL21 (DE3) PlysS. Expression and purification of chimeric proteins were confirmed by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) and Western blotting techniques. The chimera LFD1-PA4 and mixed LFD1+PA4 proteins were injected four times into mice and antibody production was relativity evaluated by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) test. RESULTS The results showed that both chimeric and mixed proteins are immunogenic, but LFD1-PA4 has a higher potential to stimulate mice immune system. CONCLUSION LFD1-PA4 chimeric protein induced a higher immune response than LFD1+PA4 mixed protein and elicited antibody responses to LF and edema factor (EF), therefore, it holds promise to be a more effective trivalent vaccine candidate to use in anthrax prevention.
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Affiliation(s)
- H. Mirhaj
- Ph.D. Student in Nano Biotechnology, Department of Biology, Faculty of Basic Science, Imam Hossein University, Tehran, Iran
| | - H. Honari
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Basic Science, Imam Hossein University, Tehran, Iran
| | - E. Zamani
- MSc Student in Cellular and Molecular Biology, Department of Biology, Faculty of Basic Science, Imam Hossein University, Tehran, Iran
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Anthrax Vaccine Precipitated Induces Edema Toxin-Neutralizing, Edema Factor-Specific Antibodies in Human Recipients. CLINICAL AND VACCINE IMMUNOLOGY : CVI 2017; 24:CVI.00165-17. [PMID: 28877928 DOI: 10.1128/cvi.00165-17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2017] [Accepted: 08/28/2017] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Edema toxin (ET), composed of edema factor (EF) and protective antigen (PA), is a virulence factor of Bacillus anthracis that alters host immune cell function and contributes to anthrax disease. Anthrax vaccine precipitated (AVP) contains low but detectable levels of EF and can elicit EF-specific antibodies in human recipients of AVP. Active and passive vaccination of mice with EF can contribute to protection from challenge with Bacillus anthracis spores or ET. This study compared humoral responses to ET in recipients of AVP (n = 33) versus anthrax vaccine adsorbed (AVA; n = 66), matched for number of vaccinations and time postvaccination, and further determined whether EF antibodies elicited by AVP contribute to ET neutralization. AVP induced higher incidence (77.8%) and titer (229.8 ± 58.6) of EF antibodies than AVA (4.2% and 7.8 ± 8.3, respectively), reflecting the reported low but detectable presence of EF in AVP. In contrast, PA IgG levels and ET neutralization measured using a luciferase-based cyclic AMP reporter assay were robust and did not differ between the two vaccine groups. Multiple regression analysis failed to detect an independent contribution of EF antibodies to ET neutralization in AVP recipients; however, EF antibodies purified from AVP sera neutralized ET. Serum samples from at least half of EF IgG-positive AVP recipients bound to nine decapeptides located in EF domains II and III. Although PA antibodies are primarily responsible for ET neutralization in recipients of AVP, increased amounts of an EF component should be investigated for the capacity to enhance next-generation, PA-based vaccines.
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Dumas EK, Garman L, Cuthbertson H, Charlton S, Hallis B, Engler RJM, Choudhari S, Picking WD, James JA, Farris AD. Lethal factor antibodies contribute to lethal toxin neutralization in recipients of anthrax vaccine precipitated. Vaccine 2017; 35:3416-3422. [PMID: 28504191 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2017.05.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2016] [Accepted: 05/03/2017] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
A major difference between two currently licensed anthrax vaccines is presence (United Kingdom Anthrax Vaccine Precipitated, AVP) or absence (United States Anthrax Vaccine Adsorbed, AVA) of quantifiable amounts of the Lethal Toxin (LT) component Lethal Factor (LF). The primary immunogen in both vaccine formulations is Protective Antigen (PA), and LT-neutralizing antibodies directed to PA are an accepted correlate of vaccine efficacy; however, vaccination studies in animal models have demonstrated that LF antibodies can be protective. In this report we compared humoral immune responses in cohorts of AVP (n=39) and AVA recipients (n=78) matched 1:2 for number of vaccinations and time post-vaccination, and evaluated whether the LF response contributes to LT neutralization in human recipients of AVP. PA response rates (≥95%) and PA IgG concentrations were similar in both groups; however, AVP recipients exhibited higher LT neutralization ED50 values (AVP: 1464.0±214.7, AVA: 544.9±83.2, p<0.0001) and had higher rates of LF IgG positivity (95%) compared to matched AVA vaccinees (1%). Multiple regression analysis revealed that LF IgG makes an independent and additive contribution to the LT neutralization response in the AVP group. Affinity purified LF antibodies from two independent AVP recipients neutralized LT and bound to LF Domain 1, confirming contribution of LF antibodies to LT neutralization. This study documents the benefit of including an LF component to PA-based anthrax vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric K Dumas
- Arthritis and Clinical Immunology Program, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation (OMRF), 825 NE 13th St., Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA; Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center (OUHSC), 940 Stanton L. Young Blvd, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA
| | - Lori Garman
- Arthritis and Clinical Immunology Program, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation (OMRF), 825 NE 13th St., Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA; Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center (OUHSC), 940 Stanton L. Young Blvd, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA
| | - Hannah Cuthbertson
- Public Health England, National Infection Service, Porton Down, Salisbury, Wiltshire SP4 0JG, United Kingdom
| | - Sue Charlton
- Public Health England, National Infection Service, Porton Down, Salisbury, Wiltshire SP4 0JG, United Kingdom
| | - Bassam Hallis
- Public Health England, National Infection Service, Porton Down, Salisbury, Wiltshire SP4 0JG, United Kingdom
| | - Renata J M Engler
- Walter Reed National Military Medical Center, 8901 Wisconsin Ave, Bethesda, MD 20814, USA
| | - Shyamal Choudhari
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Kansas, 320B Multidisciplinary Research Building, 2030 Becker Dr., Lawrence, KS 66047, USA
| | - William D Picking
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Kansas, 320B Multidisciplinary Research Building, 2030 Becker Dr., Lawrence, KS 66047, USA
| | - Judith A James
- Arthritis and Clinical Immunology Program, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation (OMRF), 825 NE 13th St., Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA; Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center (OUHSC), 940 Stanton L. Young Blvd, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA; Departments of Medicine and Pathology, OUHSC, 1000 Stanton L. Young Blvd, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA
| | - A Darise Farris
- Arthritis and Clinical Immunology Program, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation (OMRF), 825 NE 13th St., Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA; Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center (OUHSC), 940 Stanton L. Young Blvd, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA.
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Head BM, Rubinstein E, Meyers AFA. Alternative pre-approved and novel therapies for the treatment of anthrax. BMC Infect Dis 2016; 16:621. [PMID: 27809794 PMCID: PMC5094018 DOI: 10.1186/s12879-016-1951-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2016] [Accepted: 10/22/2016] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Bacillus anthracis, the causative agent of anthrax, is a spore forming and toxin producing rod-shaped bacterium that is classified as a category A bioterror agent. This pathogenic microbe can be transmitted to both animals and humans. Clinical presentation depends on the route of entry (direct contact, ingestion, injection or aerosolization) with symptoms ranging from isolated skin infections to more severe manifestations such as cardiac or pulmonary shock, meningitis, and death. To date, anthrax is treatable if antibiotics are administered promptly and continued for 60 days. However, if treatment is delayed or administered improperly, the patient's chances of survival are decreased drastically. In addition, antibiotics are ineffective against the harmful anthrax toxins and spores. Therefore, alternative therapeutics are essential. In this review article, we explore and discuss advances that have been made in anthrax therapy with a primary focus on alternative pre-approved and novel antibiotics as well as anti-toxin therapies. METHODS A literature search was conducted using the University of Manitoba search engine. Using this search engine allowed access to a greater variety of journals/articles that would have otherwise been restricted for general use. In order to be considered for discussion for this review, all articles must have been published later than 2009. RESULTS The alternative pre-approved antibiotics demonstrated high efficacy against B. anthracis both in vitro and in vivo. In addition, the safety profile and clinical pharmacology of these drugs were already known. Compounds that targeted underexploited bacterial processes (DNA replication, RNA synthesis, and cell division) were also very effective in combatting B. anthracis. In addition, these novel compounds prevented bacterial resistance. Targeting B. anthracis virulence, more specifically the anthrax toxins, increased the length of which treatment could be administered. CONCLUSIONS Several novel and pre-existing antibiotics, as well as toxin inhibitors, have shown increasing promise. A combination treatment that targets both bacterial growth and toxin production would be ideal and probably necessary for effectively combatting this armed bacterium.
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Affiliation(s)
- Breanne M. Head
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3E 0J9 Canada
| | - Ethan Rubinstein
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3E 0J9 Canada
| | - Adrienne F. A. Meyers
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3E 0J9 Canada
- National Laboratory for HIV Immunology, JC Wilt Infectious Disease Research Centre, Public Health Agency of Canada, Winnipeg, Canada
- Department of Medical Microbiology, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya
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9
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Animal Models for the Pathogenesis, Treatment, and Prevention of Infection by Bacillus anthracis. Microbiol Spectr 2016; 3:TBS-0001-2012. [PMID: 26104551 DOI: 10.1128/microbiolspec.tbs-0001-2012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
This article reviews the characteristics of the major animal models utilized for studies on Bacillus anthracis and highlights their contributions to understanding the pathogenesis and host responses to anthrax and its treatment and prevention. Advantages and drawbacks associated with each model, to include the major models (murine, guinea pig, rabbit, nonhuman primate, and rat), and other less frequently utilized models, are discussed. Although the three principal forms of anthrax are addressed, the main focus of this review is on models for inhalational anthrax. The selection of an animal model for study is often not straightforward and is dependent on the specific aims of the research or test. No single animal species provides complete equivalence to humans; however, each species, when used appropriately, can contribute to a more complete understanding of anthrax and its etiologic agent.
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Quantitative Determination of Lethal Toxin Proteins in Culture Supernatant of Human Live Anthrax Vaccine Bacillus anthracis A16R. Toxins (Basel) 2016; 8:toxins8030056. [PMID: 26927174 PMCID: PMC4810201 DOI: 10.3390/toxins8030056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2015] [Revised: 02/04/2016] [Accepted: 02/05/2016] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Bacillus anthracis (B. anthracis) is the etiological agent of anthrax affecting both humans and animals. Anthrax toxin (AT) plays a major role in pathogenesis. It includes lethal toxin (LT) and edema toxin (ET), which are formed by the combination of protective antigen (PA) and lethal factor (LF) or edema factor (EF), respectively. The currently used human anthrax vaccine in China utilizes live-attenuated B. anthracis spores (A16R; pXO1+, pXO2−) that produce anthrax toxin but cannot produce the capsule. Anthrax toxins, especially LT, have key effects on both the immunogenicity and toxicity of human anthrax vaccines. Thus, determining quantities and biological activities of LT proteins expressed by the A16R strain is meaningful. Here, we explored LT expression patterns of the A16R strain in culture conditions using another vaccine strain Sterne as a control. We developed a sandwich ELISA and cytotoxicity-based method for quantitative detection of PA and LF. Expression and degradation of LT proteins were observed in culture supernatants over time. Additionally, LT proteins expressed by the A16R and Sterne strains were found to be monomeric and showed cytotoxic activity, which may be the main reason for side effects of live anthrax vaccines. Our work facilitates the characterization of anthrax vaccines components and establishment of a quality control standard for vaccine production which may ultimately help to ensure the efficacy and safety of the human anthrax vaccine A16R.
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11
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Altmann DM. Host immunity to Bacillus anthracis lethal factor and other immunogens: implications for vaccine design. Expert Rev Vaccines 2014; 14:429-34. [PMID: 25400140 DOI: 10.1586/14760584.2015.981533] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Infections of humans with Bacillus anthracis are an issue with respect to the biothreat both to civilians and military personnel, infections of individuals by infected livestock in endemic regions and, recently, infections of intravenous drug users injecting anthrax-contaminated heroin. Existing vaccination regimens are reliant on protective antigen neutralization induced by repeated boosts with the AVA or AVP vaccines. However, there is ongoing interest in updated approaches in light of the intensive booster regime and extent of reactogenicity inherent in the current protocols. Several other immunogens from the B. anthracis proteome have been characterized in recent years, including lethal factor. Lethal factor induces strong CD4 T-cell immunity and encompasses immunodominant epitopes of relevance across diverse HLA polymorphisms. Taken together, recent studies emphasize the potential benefits of vaccines able to confer synergistic immunity to protective antigen and to other immunogens, targeting both B-cell and T-cell repertoires.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel M Altmann
- Department of Medicine, Hammersmith Hospital, Imperial College, Du Cane Road, London, UK
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12
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Preparation and evaluation of human-murine chimeric antibody against protective antigen of Bacillus anthracis. Int J Mol Sci 2014; 15:18496-507. [PMID: 25318053 PMCID: PMC4227228 DOI: 10.3390/ijms151018496] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2014] [Revised: 09/25/2014] [Accepted: 09/30/2014] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The aim of this research is to develop a human/murine chimeric Fab antibody which neutralizes the anthrax toxin, protective antigen (PA). The chimeric Fab was constructed using variable regions of murine anti-PA monoclonal antibody in combination with constant regions of human IgG. The chimeric PA6-Fab was expressed in E. coli. BL21 and evaluated by ELISA and co-immunoprecipitation- mass spectra. The potency of PA6-Fab to neutralize LeTx was examined in J774A.1 cell viability in vitro and in Fisher 344 rats in vivo. The PA6-Fab did not have domain similarity corresponding to the current anti PA mAbs, but specifically bound to anthrax PA at an affinity of 1.76 nM, and was able to neutralize LeTx in vitro and protected 56.9% cells at 20 μg/mL against anthrax LeTx. One hundred μg PA6-Fab could neutralize 300 μg LeTx in vivo. The PA6-Fab has potential as a therapeutic mAb for treatment of anthrax.
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13
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Garman L, Vineyard AJ, Crowe SR, Harley JB, Spooner CE, Collins LC, Nelson MR, Engler RJM, James JA. Humoral responses to independent vaccinations are correlated in healthy boosted adults. Vaccine 2014; 32:5624-31. [PMID: 25140930 PMCID: PMC4323156 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2014.08.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2013] [Revised: 07/11/2014] [Accepted: 08/06/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Roughly half of U.S. adults do not receive recommended booster vaccinations, but protective antibody levels are rarely measured in adults. Demographic factors, vaccination history, and responses to other vaccinations could help identify at-risk individuals. We sought to characterize rates of seroconversion and determine associations of humoral responses to multiple vaccinations in healthy adults. METHODS Humoral responses toward measles, mumps, tetanus toxoid, pertussis, hepatitis B surface antigen, and anthrax protective antigen were measured by ELISA in post-immunization samples from 1465 healthy U.S. military members. We examined the effects of demographic and clinical factors on immunization responses, as well as assessed correlations between vaccination responses. RESULTS Subsets of boosted adults did not have seroprotective levels of antibodies toward measles (10.4%), mumps (9.4%), pertussis (4.7%), hepatitis B (8.6%) or protective antigen (14.4%) detected. Half-lives of antibody responses were generally long (>30 years). Measles and mumps antibody levels were correlated (r=0.31, p<0.001), but not associated with select demographic features or vaccination history. Measles and mumps antibody levels also correlated with tetanus antibody response (r=0.11, p<0.001). CONCLUSIONS Vaccination responses are predominantly robust and vaccine specific. However, a small but significant portion of the vaccinated adult population may not have quantitative seroprotective antibody to common vaccine-preventable infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lori Garman
- Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Department of Arthritis and Clinical Immunology, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA; Oklahoma University Health Science Center, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA
| | - Amanda J Vineyard
- Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Department of Arthritis and Clinical Immunology, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA
| | - Sherry R Crowe
- Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Department of Arthritis and Clinical Immunology, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA
| | - John B Harley
- Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH 45229, USA; Cincinnati Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH 45220, USA
| | | | - Limone C Collins
- Walter Reed National Military Medical Center, Bethesda, MD 20814, USA
| | - Michael R Nelson
- Walter Reed National Military Medical Center, Bethesda, MD 20814, USA
| | - Renata J M Engler
- Walter Reed National Military Medical Center, Bethesda, MD 20814, USA
| | - Judith A James
- Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Department of Arthritis and Clinical Immunology, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA; Oklahoma University Health Science Center, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA; Oklahoma University Health Science Center, Departments of Medicine and Pathology, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA.
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14
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Protective antigen-specific memory B cells persist years after anthrax vaccination and correlate with humoral immunity. Toxins (Basel) 2014; 6:2424-31. [PMID: 25123559 PMCID: PMC4147590 DOI: 10.3390/toxins6082424] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2014] [Revised: 07/11/2014] [Accepted: 07/17/2014] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Anthrax Vaccine Adsorbed (AVA) generates short-lived protective antigen (PA) specific IgG that correlates with in vitro toxin neutralization and protection from Bacillus anthracis challenge. Animal studies suggest that when PA-specific IgG has waned, survival after spore challenge correlates with an activation of PA-specific memory B cells. Here, we characterize the quantity and the longevity of AVA-induced memory B cell responses in humans. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) from individuals vaccinated ≥3 times with AVA (n = 50) were collected early (3-6 months, n = 27) or late after their last vaccination (2-5 years, n = 23), pan-stimulated, and assayed by ELISPOT for total and PA-specific memory B cells differentiated into antibody secreting cells (ASCs). PA-specific ASC percentages ranged from 0.02% to 6.25% (median: 1.57%) and did not differ between early and late post-vaccination individuals. PA-specific ASC percentages correlated with plasma PA-specific IgG (r = 0.42, p = 0.03) and toxin neutralization (r = 0.52, p = 0.003) early post vaccination. PA-specific ASC percentages correlated with supernatant anti-PA both early (r = 0.60, p = 0.001) and late post vaccination (r = 0.71, p < 0.0001). These data suggest PA-specific memory B cell responses are long-lived and can be estimated after recent vaccination by the magnitude and neutralization capacity of the humoral response.
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15
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Ovsyannikova IG, Pankratz VS, Vierkant RA, Pajewski NM, Quinn CP, Kaslow RA, Jacobson RM, Poland GA. Human leukocyte antigens and cellular immune responses to anthrax vaccine adsorbed. Infect Immun 2013; 81:2584-91. [PMID: 23649091 PMCID: PMC3697592 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00269-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2013] [Accepted: 04/28/2013] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Interindividual variations in vaccine-induced immune responses are in part due to host genetic polymorphisms in the human leukocyte antigen (HLA) and other gene families. This study examined associations between HLA genotypes, haplotypes, and homozygosity and protective antigen (PA)-specific cellular immune responses in healthy subjects following immunization with Anthrax Vaccine Adsorbed (AVA). While limited associations were observed between individual HLA alleles or haplotypes and variable lymphocyte proliferative (LP) responses to AVA, analyses of homozygosity supported the hypothesis of a "heterozygote advantage." Individuals who were homozygous for any HLA locus demonstrated significantly lower PA-specific LP than subjects who were heterozygous at all eight loci (median stimulation indices [SI], 1.84 versus 2.95, P = 0.009). Similarly, we found that class I (HLA-A) and class II (HLA-DQA1 and HLA-DQB1) homozygosity was significantly associated with an overall decrease in LP compared with heterozygosity at those three loci. Specifically, individuals who were homozygous at these loci had significantly lower PA-specific LP than subjects heterozygous for HLA-A (median SI, 1.48 versus 2.13, P = 0.005), HLA-DQA1 (median SI, 1.75 versus 2.11, P = 0.007), and HLA-DQB1 (median SI, 1.48 versus 2.13, P = 0.002) loci, respectively. Finally, homozygosity at an increasing number (≥ 4) of HLA loci was significantly correlated with a reduction in LP response (P < 0.001) in a dose-dependent manner. Additional studies are needed to reproduce these findings and determine whether HLA-heterozygous individuals generate stronger cellular immune response to other virulence factors (Bacillus anthracis LF and EF) than HLA-homozygous subjects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Inna G. Ovsyannikova
- Mayo Clinic Vaccine Research Group, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota, USA
- Program in Translational Immunovirology and Biodefense, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota, USA
| | - V. Shane Pankratz
- Department of Health Sciences Research, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota, USA
| | - Robert A. Vierkant
- Department of Health Sciences Research, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota, USA
| | - Nicholas M. Pajewski
- Department of Biostatistical Sciences, Wake Forest University Health Sciences, Winston Salem, North Carolina, USA
| | - Conrad P. Quinn
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Richard A. Kaslow
- Department of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, USA
| | - Robert M. Jacobson
- Mayo Clinic Vaccine Research Group, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota, USA
- Department of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota, USA
| | - Gregory A. Poland
- Mayo Clinic Vaccine Research Group, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota, USA
- Department of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota, USA
- Program in Translational Immunovirology and Biodefense, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota, USA
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16
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Lu H, Catania J, Baranji K, Feng J, Gu M, Lathey J, Sweeny D, Sanford H, Sapru K, Patamawenu T, Chen JH, Ng A, Fesseha Z, Kluepfel-Stahl S, Minang J, Alleva D. Characterization of the native form of anthrax lethal factor for use in the toxin neutralization assay. CLINICAL AND VACCINE IMMUNOLOGY : CVI 2013; 20:986-97. [PMID: 23637044 PMCID: PMC3697443 DOI: 10.1128/cvi.00046-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2013] [Accepted: 04/22/2013] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The cell-based anthrax toxin neutralization assay (TNA) is used to determine functional antibody titers of sera from animals and humans immunized with anthrax vaccines. The anthrax lethal toxin is a critical reagent of the TNA composed of protective antigen (PA) and lethal factor (LF), which are neutralization targets of serum antibodies. Cytotoxic potency of recombinant LF (rLF) lots can vary substantially, causing a challenge in producing a renewable supply of this reagent for validated TNAs. To address this issue, we characterized a more potent rLF variant (rLF-A) with the exact native LF amino acid sequence that lacks the additional N-terminal histidine and methionine residues present on the commonly used form of rLF (rLF-HMA) as a consequence of the expression vector. rLF-A can be used at 4 to 6 ng/ml (in contrast to 40 ng/ml rLF-HMA) with 50 ng/ml recombinant PA (rPA) to achieve 95 to 99% cytotoxicity. In the presence of 50 ng/ml rPA, both rLF-A and rLF-HMA allowed for similar potencies (50% effective dilution) among immune sera in the TNA. rPA, but not rLF, was the dominant factor in determining potency of serum samples containing anti-PA antibodies only or an excess of anti-PA relative to anti-rLF antibodies. Such anti-PA content is reflected in immune sera derived from most anthrax vaccines in development. These results support that 7- to 10-fold less rLF-A can be used in place of rLF-HMA without changing TNA serum dilution curve parameters, thus extending the use of a single rLF lot and a consistent, renewable supply.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hang Lu
- Emergent BioSolutions, Inc., Gaithersburg, Maryland, USA
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17
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Garman L, Dumas EK, Kurella S, Hunt JJ, Crowe SR, Nguyen ML, Cox PM, James JA, Farris AD. MHC class II and non-MHC class II genes differentially influence humoral immunity to Bacillus anthracis lethal factor and protective antigen. Toxins (Basel) 2013; 4:1451-67. [PMID: 23342680 PMCID: PMC3528256 DOI: 10.3390/toxins4121451] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Anthrax Lethal Toxin consists of Protective Antigen (PA) and Lethal Factor (LF), and current vaccination strategies focus on eliciting antibodies to PA. In human vaccination, the response to PA can vary greatly, and the response is often directed toward non-neutralizing epitopes. Variable vaccine responses have been shown to be due in part to genetic differences in individuals, with both MHC class II and other genes playing roles. Here, we investigated the relative contribution of MHC class II versus non-MHC class II genes in the humoral response to PA and LF immunization using three immunized strains of inbred mice: A/J (H-2k at the MHC class II locus), B6 (H-2b), and B6.H2k (H-2k). IgG antibody titers to LF were controlled primarily by the MHC class II locus, whereas IgG titers to PA were strongly influenced by the non-MHC class II genetic background. Conversely, the humoral fine specificity of reactivity to LF appeared to be controlled primarily through non-MHC class II genes, while the specificity of reactivity to PA was more dependent on MHC class II. Common epitopes, reactive in all strains, occurred in both LF and PA responses. These results demonstrate that MHC class II differentially influences humoral immune responses to LF and PA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lori Garman
- Arthritis and Clinical Immunology Program, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA; E-Mails: (L.G.); (E.K.D.); (S.K.); (S.R.C.); (M.L.N.); (P.M.C.); (J.A.J.)
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, 940 Stanton L. Young Blvd, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA; E-Mail:
| | - Eric K. Dumas
- Arthritis and Clinical Immunology Program, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA; E-Mails: (L.G.); (E.K.D.); (S.K.); (S.R.C.); (M.L.N.); (P.M.C.); (J.A.J.)
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, 940 Stanton L. Young Blvd, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA; E-Mail:
| | - Sridevi Kurella
- Arthritis and Clinical Immunology Program, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA; E-Mails: (L.G.); (E.K.D.); (S.K.); (S.R.C.); (M.L.N.); (P.M.C.); (J.A.J.)
| | - Jonathan J. Hunt
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, 940 Stanton L. Young Blvd, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA; E-Mail:
| | - Sherry R. Crowe
- Arthritis and Clinical Immunology Program, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA; E-Mails: (L.G.); (E.K.D.); (S.K.); (S.R.C.); (M.L.N.); (P.M.C.); (J.A.J.)
| | - Melissa L. Nguyen
- Arthritis and Clinical Immunology Program, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA; E-Mails: (L.G.); (E.K.D.); (S.K.); (S.R.C.); (M.L.N.); (P.M.C.); (J.A.J.)
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, 940 Stanton L. Young Blvd, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA; E-Mail:
| | - Philip M. Cox
- Arthritis and Clinical Immunology Program, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA; E-Mails: (L.G.); (E.K.D.); (S.K.); (S.R.C.); (M.L.N.); (P.M.C.); (J.A.J.)
| | - Judith A. James
- Arthritis and Clinical Immunology Program, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA; E-Mails: (L.G.); (E.K.D.); (S.K.); (S.R.C.); (M.L.N.); (P.M.C.); (J.A.J.)
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, 940 Stanton L. Young Blvd, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA; E-Mail:
- Departments of Medicine and Pathology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, 1000 Stanton L. Young Blvd, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA
| | - A. Darise Farris
- Arthritis and Clinical Immunology Program, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA; E-Mails: (L.G.); (E.K.D.); (S.K.); (S.R.C.); (M.L.N.); (P.M.C.); (J.A.J.)
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, 940 Stanton L. Young Blvd, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA; E-Mail:
- Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail: ; Tel.: +1-405-271-7389; Fax: +1-405-271-4110
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18
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Dumas EK, Nguyen ML, Cox PM, Rodgers H, Peterson JL, James JA, Farris AD. Stochastic humoral immunity to Bacillus anthracis protective antigen: identification of anti-peptide IgG correlating with seroconversion to Lethal Toxin neutralization. Vaccine 2013; 31:1856-63. [PMID: 23415781 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2013.01.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2012] [Revised: 01/15/2013] [Accepted: 01/21/2013] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
A substantial fraction of individuals vaccinated against anthrax have low to immeasurable levels of serum Lethal Toxin (LeTx)-neutralizing activity. The only known correlate of protection against Bacillus anthracis in the currently licensed vaccine is magnitude of the IgG response to Protective Antigen (PA); however, some individuals producing high serum levels of anti-PA IgG fail to neutralize LeTx in vitro. This suggests that non-protective humoral responses to PA may be immunodominant in some individuals. Therefore, to better understand why anthrax vaccination elicits heterogeneous levels of protection, this study was designed to elucidate the relationship between anti-PA fine specificity and LeTx neutralization in response to PA vaccination. Inbred mice immunized with recombinant PA produced high levels of anti-PA IgG and neutralized LeTx in vitro and in vivo. Decapeptide binding studies using pooled sera reproducibly identified the same 9 epitopes. Unexpectedly, sera from individual mice revealed substantial heterogeneity in the anti-PA IgG and LeTx neutralization responses, despite relative genetic homogeneity, shared environment and exposure to the same immunogen. This heterogeneity permitted the identification of specificities that correlate with LeTx-neutralizing activity. IgG binding to six decapeptides comprising two PA epitopes, located in domains I and IV, significantly correlate with seroconversion to LeTx neutralization. These results indicate that stochastic variation in humoral immunity is likely to be a major contributor to the general problem of heterogeneity in vaccine responsiveness and suggest that vaccine effectiveness could be improved by approaches that focus the humoral response toward protective epitopes in a greater fraction of vaccinees.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric K Dumas
- Arthritis and Clinical Immunology Program, Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, United States.
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19
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Zhuo W, Tao G, Zhang L, Chen Z. Vector-mediated selective expression of lethal factor, a toxic element of Bacillus anthracis, damages A549 cells via inhibition of MAPK and AKT pathways. Int J Med Sci 2013; 10:292-8. [PMID: 23423542 PMCID: PMC3575624 DOI: 10.7150/ijms.5570] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2012] [Accepted: 01/25/2013] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Lethal factor (LF), a major toxic element of Bacillus anthracis combined with its protective antigen (PA), enters the cells through the cytomembrane receptors and causes damage to the host cells, thereby leading to septicemia, toxemia, and meningitis with high mortality. LF has been identified as a potential biotech-weapon, which can impede cancer growth in vascular endothelial cells because of its cytotoxicity. However, the feasibility of LF application and further investigations has been limited because LF is nonspecific. To solve this problem, we constructed a vector that contained the LF sequence, which was regulated by a tumor-specific human telomerase reverse transcriptase promoter (hTERTp). Results showed that LF was selectively expressed in lung cancer A549 cells but not in normal cells, thereby resulting in A549 cell apoptosis. The results also revealed that the inhibition of mitogen-activated protein kinase and AKT pathways was partially involved in the process. Thus, hTERTp-regulated LF increase could be a promising approach in lung cancer-targeted therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenlei Zhuo
- Institute of Cancer, Xinqiao Hospital, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, China.
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20
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Ingram R, Baillie L. It's in the genes! Human genetic diversity and the response to anthrax vaccines. Expert Rev Vaccines 2012; 11:633-5. [PMID: 22873120 DOI: 10.1586/erv.12.41] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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21
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Anthrax lethal toxin and the induction of CD4 T cell immunity. Toxins (Basel) 2012; 4:878-99. [PMID: 23162703 PMCID: PMC3496994 DOI: 10.3390/toxins4100878] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2012] [Revised: 10/08/2012] [Accepted: 10/10/2012] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Bacillus anthracis secretes exotoxins which act through several mechanisms including those that can subvert adaptive immunity with respect both to antigen presenting cell and T cell function. The combination of Protective Antigen (PA) and Lethal Factor (LF) forming Lethal Toxin (LT), acts within host cells to down-regulate the mitogen activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling cascade. Until recently the MAPK kinases were the only known substrate for LT; over the past few years it has become evident that LT also cleaves Nlrp1, leading to inflammasome activation and macrophage death. The predicted downstream consequences of subverting these important cellular pathways are impaired antigen presentation and adaptive immunity. In contrast to this, recent work has indicated that robust memory T cell responses to B. anthracis antigens can be identified following natural anthrax infection. We discuss how LT affects the adaptive immune response and specifically the identification of B. anthracis epitopes that are both immunogenic and protective with the potential for inclusion in protein sub-unit based vaccines.
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22
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Göttle M, Dove S, Seifert R. Bacillus anthracis edema factor substrate specificity: evidence for new modes of action. Toxins (Basel) 2012; 4:505-35. [PMID: 22852066 PMCID: PMC3407890 DOI: 10.3390/toxins4070505] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2012] [Revised: 06/15/2012] [Accepted: 06/27/2012] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Since the isolation of Bacillus anthracis exotoxins in the 1960s, the detrimental activity of edema factor (EF) was considered as adenylyl cyclase activity only. Yet the catalytic site of EF was recently shown to accomplish cyclization of cytidine 5'-triphosphate, uridine 5'-triphosphate and inosine 5'-triphosphate, in addition to adenosine 5'-triphosphate. This review discusses the broad EF substrate specificity and possible implications of intracellular accumulation of cyclic cytidine 3':5'-monophosphate, cyclic uridine 3':5'-monophosphate and cyclic inosine 3':5'-monophosphate on cellular functions vital for host defense. In particular, cAMP-independent mechanisms of action of EF on host cell signaling via protein kinase A, protein kinase G, phosphodiesterases and CNG channels are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Göttle
- Department of Neurology, Emory University School of Medicine, 6302 Woodruff Memorial Research Building, 101 Woodruff Circle, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
- Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; ; Tel.: +1-404-727-1678; Fax: +1-404-727-3157
| | - Stefan Dove
- Department of Medicinal/Pharmaceutical Chemistry II, University of Regensburg, D-93040 Regensburg, Germany;
| | - Roland Seifert
- Institute of Pharmacology, Medical School of Hannover, Carl-Neuberg-Str. 1, D-30625 Hannover, Germany;
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23
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Pajewski NM, Shrestha S, Quinn CP, Parker SD, Wiener H, Aissani B, McKinney BA, Poland GA, Edberg JC, Kimberly RP, Tang J, Kaslow RA. A genome-wide association study of host genetic determinants of the antibody response to Anthrax Vaccine Adsorbed. Vaccine 2012; 30:4778-84. [PMID: 22658931 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2012.05.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2012] [Revised: 04/20/2012] [Accepted: 05/14/2012] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Several lines of evidence have supported a host genetic contribution to vaccine response, but genome-wide assessments for specific determinants have been sparse. Here we describe a genome-wide association study (GWAS) of protective antigen-specific antibody (AbPA) responses among 726 European-Americans who received Anthrax Vaccine Adsorbed (AVA) as part of a clinical trial. After quality control, 736,996 SNPs were tested for association with the AbPA response to 3 or 4 AVA vaccinations given over a 6-month period. No SNP achieved the threshold of genome-wide significance (p=5 × 10(-8)), but suggestive associations (p<1 × 10(-5)) were observed for SNPs in or near the class II region of the major histocompatibility complex (MHC), in the promoter region of SPSB1, and adjacent to MEX3C. Multivariable regression modeling suggested that much of the association signal within the MHC corresponded to previously identified HLA DR-DQ haplotypes involving component HLA-DRB1 alleles of *15:01, *01:01, or *01:02. We estimated the proportion of additive genetic variance explained by common SNP variation for the AbPA response after the 6 month vaccination. This analysis indicated a significant, albeit imprecisely estimated, contribution of variation tagged by common polymorphisms (p=0.032). Future studies will be required to replicate these findings in European Americans and to further elucidate the host genetic factors underlying variable immune response to AVA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas M Pajewski
- Department of Biostatistical Sciences, Wake Forest University Health Sciences, Winston Salem, NC 27157-1063, USA.
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24
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Pauli NT, Henry Dunand CJ, Wilson PC. Exploiting human memory B cell heterogeneity for improved vaccine efficacy. Front Immunol 2011; 2:77. [PMID: 22566866 PMCID: PMC3342318 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2011.00077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2011] [Accepted: 11/29/2011] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
The major goal in vaccination is establishment of long-term, prophylactic humoral memory to a pathogen. Two major components to long-lived humoral memory are plasma cells for the production of specific immunoglobulin and memory B cells that survey for their specific antigen in the periphery for later affinity maturation, proliferation, and differentiation. The study of human B cell memory has been aided by the discovery of a general marker for B cell memory, expression of CD27; however, new data suggests the existence of CD27⁻ memory B cells as well. These recently described non-canonical memory populations have increasingly pointed to the heterogeneity of the memory compartment. The novel B memory subsets in humans appear to have unique origins, localization, and functions compared to what was considered to be a "classical" memory B cell. In this article, we review the known B cell memory subsets, the establishment of B cell memory in vaccination and infection, and how understanding these newly described subsets can inform vaccine design and disease treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noel T. Pauli
- Committee on Immunology, Section of Rheumatology, The Knapp Center for Lupus and Immunology Research, The University of ChicagoChicago, IL, USA
- The Department of Medicine, Section of Rheumatology, The Knapp Center for Lupus and Immunology Research, The University of ChicagoChicago, IL, USA
| | - Carole J. Henry Dunand
- The Department of Medicine, Section of Rheumatology, The Knapp Center for Lupus and Immunology Research, The University of ChicagoChicago, IL, USA
| | - Patrick C. Wilson
- Committee on Immunology, Section of Rheumatology, The Knapp Center for Lupus and Immunology Research, The University of ChicagoChicago, IL, USA
- The Department of Medicine, Section of Rheumatology, The Knapp Center for Lupus and Immunology Research, The University of ChicagoChicago, IL, USA
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