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Fragoso-Saavedra M, Ramírez-Estudillo C, Peláez-González DL, Ramos-Flores JO, Torres-Franco G, Núñez-Muñoz L, Marcelino-Pérez G, Segura-Covarrubias MG, González-González R, Ruiz-Medrano R, Xoconostle-Cázares B, Gayosso-Vázquez A, Reyes-Maya S, Ramírez-Andoney V, Alonso-Morales RA, Vega-López MA. Combined Subcutaneous-Intranasal Immunization With Epitope-Based Antigens Elicits Binding and Neutralizing Antibody Responses in Serum and Mucosae Against PRRSV-2 and SARS-CoV-2. Front Immunol 2022; 13:848054. [PMID: 35432364 PMCID: PMC9008747 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.848054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2022] [Accepted: 03/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
New vaccine design approaches, platforms, and immunization strategies might foster antiviral mucosal effector and memory responses to reduce asymptomatic infection and transmission in vaccinated individuals. Here, we investigated a combined parenteral and mucosal immunization scheme to induce local and serum antibody responses, employing the epitope-based antigens 3BT and NG19m. These antigens target the important emerging and re-emerging viruses PRRSV-2 and SARS-CoV-2, respectively. We assessed two versions of the 3BT protein, which contains conserved epitopes from the GP5 envelope protein of PRRSV-2: soluble and expressed by the recombinant baculovirus BacDual-3BT. On the other hand, NG19m, comprising the receptor-binding motif of the S protein of SARS-CoV-2, was evaluated as a soluble recombinant protein only. Vietnamese mini-pigs were immunized employing different inoculation routes: subcutaneous, intranasal, or a combination of both (s.c.-i.n.). Animals produced antigen-binding and neut1ralizing antibodies in serum and mucosal fluids, with varying patterns of concentration and activity, depending on the antigen and the immunization schedule. Soluble 3BT was a potent immunogen to elicit binding and neutralizing antibodies in serum, nasal mucus, and vaginal swabs. The vectored immunogen BacDual-3BT induced binding antibodies in serum and mucosae, but PRRSV-2 neutralizing activity was found in nasal mucus exclusively when administered intranasally. NG19m promoted serum and mucosal binding antibodies, which showed differing neutralizing activity. Only serum samples from subcutaneously immunized animals inhibited RBD-ACE2 interaction, while mini-pigs inoculated intranasally or via the combined s.c.-i.n. scheme produced subtle neutralizing humoral responses in the upper and lower respiratory mucosae. Our results show that intranasal immunization, alone or combined with subcutaneous delivery of epitope-based antigens, generates local and systemic binding and neutralizing antibodies. Further investigation is needed to evaluate the capability of the induced responses to prevent infection and reduce transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mario Fragoso-Saavedra
- Laboratorio de Inmunobiología de las Mucosas, Departamento de Infectómica y Patogénesis Molecular, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - Carmen Ramírez-Estudillo
- Laboratorio de Inmunobiología de las Mucosas, Departamento de Infectómica y Patogénesis Molecular, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - Diana L Peláez-González
- Unidad de Producción y Experimentación de Animales de Laboratorio, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - Jorge O Ramos-Flores
- Unidad de Producción y Experimentación de Animales de Laboratorio, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - Gustavo Torres-Franco
- Unidad de Producción y Experimentación de Animales de Laboratorio, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - Leandro Núñez-Muñoz
- Laboratorio de Biología Molecular de Plantas, Departamento de Biotecnología y Bioingeniería, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - Gabriel Marcelino-Pérez
- Laboratorio de Biología Molecular de Plantas, Departamento de Biotecnología y Bioingeniería, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - María G Segura-Covarrubias
- Laboratorio de Biología Molecular de Plantas, Departamento de Biotecnología y Bioingeniería, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - Rogelio González-González
- Laboratorio de Biología Molecular de Plantas, Departamento de Biotecnología y Bioingeniería, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - Roberto Ruiz-Medrano
- Laboratorio de Biología Molecular de Plantas, Departamento de Biotecnología y Bioingeniería, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - Beatriz Xoconostle-Cázares
- Laboratorio de Biología Molecular de Plantas, Departamento de Biotecnología y Bioingeniería, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - Amanda Gayosso-Vázquez
- Laboratorio de Genética Molecular, Departamento de Genética y Bioestadística, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - Silvia Reyes-Maya
- Laboratorio de Genética Molecular, Departamento de Genética y Bioestadística, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - Vianey Ramírez-Andoney
- Laboratorio de Genética Molecular, Departamento de Genética y Bioestadística, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - Rogelio A Alonso-Morales
- Laboratorio de Genética Molecular, Departamento de Genética y Bioestadística, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - Marco A Vega-López
- Laboratorio de Inmunobiología de las Mucosas, Departamento de Infectómica y Patogénesis Molecular, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Ciudad de México, Mexico
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2
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Kord E, Roohvand F, Dubuisson J, Vausselin T, Nasr Azadani H, Keshavarz A, Nejati A, Samimi-Rad K. BacMam virus-based surface display for HCV E2 glycoprotein induces strong cross-neutralizing antibodies and cellular immune responses in vaccinated mice. Infect Agent Cancer 2021; 16:69. [PMID: 34922563 PMCID: PMC8684228 DOI: 10.1186/s13027-021-00407-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2021] [Accepted: 11/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Despite recent advancements, limitations in the treatment and control of hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection reprioritized the studies for invention of an efficient HCV vaccine to elicit strong neutralizing antibodies (NAbs) and cellular responses. Methods Herein, we report molecular construction of a BacMam virus-based surface display for a subtype-1a HCV gpE2 (Bac-CMV-E2-gp64; Bac) that both expressed and displayed gpE2 in mammalian cells and bacouloviral envelope, respectively. Results Assessments by western blotting, Immunofluorescence and Immunogold-electron microscopy indicated the proper expression and incorporation in insect cell and baculovirus envelope, respectively. Mice immunized in three different prime-boost immunization groups of: Bac/Bac, Bac/Pro (bacoulovirus-derived gpE2) and Bac/DNA (plasmid DNA (pCDNA)-encoding gpE2) developed high levels of IgG and IFN-γ (highest for Bac/Bac group) indicating the induction of both humeral and cellular immune responses. Calculation of the IgG2a/IgG1 and IFN-γ/IL-4 ratios indicated a Th1 polarization of immune responses in the Bac/Bac and Bac/DNA groups but a balanced Th1-Th2 phenotype in the Bac/Pro group. Sera of the mice in the Bac/Bac group provided the highest percentage of cross-NAbs against a subtype-2a HCVcc (JFH1) compared to Bac/Pro and Bac/DNA groups (62% versus 41% and 6%). Conclusions Results indicated that BacMam virus-based surface display for gpE2 might act as both subunit and DNA vaccine and offers a promising strategy for development of HCV vaccine for concurrent induction of strong humoral and cellular immune responses. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13027-021-00407-x.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ebrahim Kord
- Department of Virology, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Enqelab Square, P.O. Box 1417613151, Tehran, Iran.,Infectious Diseases and Tropical Medicine Research Center, Resistant Tuberculosis Institute, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan, Iran
| | - Farzin Roohvand
- Department of Virology, Pasteur Institute of Iran (IPI), No. 69, Pasteur Ave, P.O. Box 1316943551, Tehran, Iran
| | - Jean Dubuisson
- CNRS, Inserm, CHU Lille, Institut Pasteur de Lille, Batiment, IBL, CS50477, Molecular & Cellular Virology, U1019 - UMR 8204 - CIIL- Center for Infection and Immunity of Lille, University Lille, 59021, Lille Cedex, France
| | - Thibaut Vausselin
- CNRS, Inserm, CHU Lille, Institut Pasteur de Lille, Batiment, IBL, CS50477, Molecular & Cellular Virology, U1019 - UMR 8204 - CIIL- Center for Infection and Immunity of Lille, University Lille, 59021, Lille Cedex, France
| | - Hosein Nasr Azadani
- Department of Virology, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Enqelab Square, P.O. Box 1417613151, Tehran, Iran
| | - Abolfazl Keshavarz
- Department of Virology, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Enqelab Square, P.O. Box 1417613151, Tehran, Iran
| | - Ahmad Nejati
- Department of Virology, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Enqelab Square, P.O. Box 1417613151, Tehran, Iran
| | - Katayoun Samimi-Rad
- Department of Virology, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Enqelab Square, P.O. Box 1417613151, Tehran, Iran.
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Smith A, Rodriguez L, El Ghouayel M, Nogales A, Chamberlain JM, Sortino K, Reilly E, Feng C, Topham DJ, Martínez-Sobrido L, Dewhurst S. A Live Attenuated Influenza Vaccine Elicits Enhanced Heterologous Protection When the Internal Genes of the Vaccine Are Matched to Those of the Challenge Virus. J Virol 2020; 94:e01065-19. [PMID: 31748399 PMCID: PMC6997774 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01065-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2019] [Accepted: 11/08/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Influenza A virus (IAV) causes significant morbidity and mortality, despite the availability of viral vaccines. The efficacy of live attenuated influenza vaccines (LAIVs) has been especially poor in recent years. One potential reason is that the master donor virus (MDV), on which all LAIVs are based, contains either the internal genes of the 1960 A/Ann Arbor/6/60 or the 1957 A/Leningrad/17/57 H2N2 viruses (i.e., they diverge considerably from currently circulating strains). We previously showed that introduction of the temperature-sensitive (ts) residue signature of the AA/60 MDV into a 2009 pandemic A/California/04/09 H1N1 virus (Cal/09) results in only 10-fold in vivo attenuation in mice. We have previously shown that the ts residue signature of the Russian A/Leningrad/17/57 H2N2 LAIV (Len LAIV) more robustly attenuates the prototypical A/Puerto Rico/8/1934 (PR8) H1N1 virus. In this work, we therefore introduced the ts signature from Len LAIV into Cal/09. This new Cal/09 LAIV is ts in vitro, highly attenuated (att) in mice, and protects from a lethal homologous challenge. In addition, when our Cal/09 LAIV with PR8 hemagglutinin and neuraminidase was used to vaccinate mice, it provided enhanced protection against a wild-type Cal/09 challenge relative to a PR8 LAIV with the same attenuating mutations. These findings suggest it may be possible to improve the efficacy of LAIVs by better matching the sequence of the MDV to currently circulating strains.IMPORTANCE Seasonal influenza infection remains a major cause of disease and death, underscoring the need for improved vaccines. Among current influenza vaccines, the live attenuated influenza vaccine (LAIV) is unique in its ability to elicit T-cell immunity to the conserved internal proteins of the virus. Despite this, LAIV has shown limited efficacy in recent years. One possible reason is that the conserved, internal genes of all current LAIVs derive from virus strains that were isolated between 1957 and 1960 and that, as a result, do not resemble currently circulating influenza viruses. We have therefore developed and tested a new LAIV, based on a currently circulating pandemic strain of influenza. Our results show that this new LAIV elicits improved protective immunity compared to a more conventional LAIV.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Antibodies, Neutralizing
- Antibodies, Viral/immunology
- Dogs
- Female
- HEK293 Cells
- Humans
- Immunogenicity, Vaccine/immunology
- Influenza A Virus, H1N1 Subtype/genetics
- Influenza A Virus, H1N1 Subtype/immunology
- Influenza A Virus, H2N2 Subtype/genetics
- Influenza A Virus, H2N2 Subtype/immunology
- Influenza A virus/genetics
- Influenza A virus/immunology
- Influenza Vaccines/genetics
- Influenza Vaccines/immunology
- Influenza, Human/genetics
- Influenza, Human/immunology
- Influenza, Human/virology
- Madin Darby Canine Kidney Cells
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Vaccines, Attenuated/immunology
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Smith
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Rochester, Rochester, New York, USA
- Medical Scientist Training Program, University of Rochester, Rochester, New York, USA
| | - Laura Rodriguez
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Rochester, Rochester, New York, USA
| | - Maya El Ghouayel
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Rochester, Rochester, New York, USA
| | - Aitor Nogales
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Rochester, Rochester, New York, USA
| | - Jeffrey M Chamberlain
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Rochester, Rochester, New York, USA
| | - Katherine Sortino
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Rochester, Rochester, New York, USA
| | - Emma Reilly
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Rochester, Rochester, New York, USA
- David H. Smith Center for Vaccine Biology and Immunology, University of Rochester, Rochester, New York, USA
| | - Changyong Feng
- Department of Biostatistics and Computational Biology, University of Rochester, Rochester, New York, USA
| | - David J Topham
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Rochester, Rochester, New York, USA
- David H. Smith Center for Vaccine Biology and Immunology, University of Rochester, Rochester, New York, USA
| | - Luis Martínez-Sobrido
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Rochester, Rochester, New York, USA
| | - Stephen Dewhurst
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Rochester, Rochester, New York, USA
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4
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Jang YH, Seong BL. The Quest for a Truly Universal Influenza Vaccine. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2019; 9:344. [PMID: 31649895 PMCID: PMC6795694 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2019.00344] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2019] [Accepted: 09/24/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
There is an unmet public health need for a universal influenza vaccine (UIV) to provide broad and durable protection from influenza virus infections. The identification of broadly protective antibodies and cross-reactive T cells directed to influenza viral targets present a promising prospect for the development of a UIV. Multiple targets for cross-protection have been identified in the stalk and head of hemagglutinin (HA) to develop a UIV. Recently, neuraminidase (NA) has received significant attention as a critical component for increasing the breadth of protection. The HA stalk-based approaches have shown promising results of broader protection in animal studies, and their feasibility in humans are being evaluated in clinical trials. Mucosal immune responses and cross-reactive T cell immunity across influenza A and B viruses intrinsic to live attenuated influenza vaccine (LAIV) have emerged as essential features to be incorporated into a UIV. Complementing the weakness of the stand-alone approaches, prime-boost vaccination combining HA stalk, and LAIV is under clinical evaluation, with the aim to increase the efficacy and broaden the spectrum of protection. Preexisting immunity in humans established by prior exposure to influenza viruses may affect the hierarchy and magnitude of immune responses elicited by an influenza vaccine, limiting the interpretation of preclinical data based on naive animals, necessitating human challenge studies. A consensus is yet to be achieved on the spectrum of protection, efficacy, target population, and duration of protection to define a “universal” vaccine. This review discusses the recent advancements in the development of UIVs, rationales behind cross-protection and vaccine designs, and challenges faced in obtaining balanced protection potency, a wide spectrum of protection, and safety relevant to UIVs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yo Han Jang
- Molecular Medicine Laboratory, Department of Biotechnology, College of Life Science and Biotechnology, Yonsei University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Baik Lin Seong
- Molecular Medicine Laboratory, Department of Biotechnology, College of Life Science and Biotechnology, Yonsei University, Seoul, South Korea.,Vaccine Translational Research Center, Yonsei University, Seoul, South Korea
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5
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Teixeira AF, Fernandes LG, Cavenague MF, Takahashi MB, Santos JC, Passalia FJ, Daroz BB, Kochi LT, Vieira ML, Nascimento AL. Adjuvanted leptospiral vaccines: Challenges and future development of new leptospirosis vaccines. Vaccine 2019; 37:3961-3973. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2019.05.087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2019] [Revised: 04/16/2019] [Accepted: 05/21/2019] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
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6
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Zhou G, Hollenberg MD, Vliagoftis H, Kane KP. Protease-Activated Receptor 2 Agonist as Adjuvant: Augmenting Development of Protective Memory CD8 T Cell Responses Induced by Influenza Virosomes. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2019; 203:441-452. [PMID: 31182479 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1800915] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2018] [Accepted: 05/03/2019] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Protease-activated receptor 2 (PAR-2) is expressed in various tissues, including lung, and when activated, promotes inflammation, differentiation, and migration of dendritic cells. We found that combining influenza virosomes containing hemagglutinin and neuraminidase with a PAR-2 agonist peptide (PAR-2AP) in an intranasal prime boost approach increased survival of mice challenged weeks later with lethal influenza virus over that by virosome or PAR-2AP prime boost alone. No weight loss occurred from influenza challenge after virosome-plus-PAR-2AP prime boost compared with either virosomes or PAR-2AP alone. Thus, virosomes plus PAR-2AP prevented morbidity as well as mortality. Through adoptive transfer, CD8+ lung T cells but not CD4+ T cells from virosomes plus PAR-2AP-primed mice protected from lethal influenza virus challenge and enhanced survival with less weight loss and faster recovery. Virosome-plus-PAR-2AP prime boost resulted in greater percentages of T effector memory phenotype cells (Tem) in lung, and higher frequencies of CD8 Tem and T central memory cells displayed effector functions in response to virus challenge in vivo. Virosome-plus-PAR-2AP prime boost also resulted in greater percentages of Ag-specific CD8+ T cells, both Tem and T central memory cells, in lungs of animals subsequently challenged with live influenza virus. Our findings indicate that PAR-2AP, a short peptide, may be a new and useful mucosal adjuvant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gang Zhou
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology and Li Ka Shing Institute of Virology, University of Alberta, T6G 2E1 Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
| | - Morley D Hollenberg
- Inflammation Research Network, Snyder Institute for Chronic Disease and Departments of Physiology and Pharmacology and Medicine, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, T2N 4N1 Calgary, Alberta, Canada; and
| | - Harissios Vliagoftis
- Division of Pulmonary Medicine, Department of Medicine, Heritage Medical Research Centre, University of Alberta, T6G 2S2 Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
| | - Kevin P Kane
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology and Li Ka Shing Institute of Virology, University of Alberta, T6G 2E1 Edmonton, Alberta, Canada;
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7
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Design of a Universal Influenza A Vaccine Candidate Based on M2e.FliC; Immunoinformatics Analysis, Protein Modeling, and Its Expression in Escherichia coli. Jundishapur J Microbiol 2018. [DOI: 10.5812/jjm.66592] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
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8
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Lin CW, Cheng MC, Lin SY, Hung SH, Jhang SY, Chang CW, Chang PC, Hu YC. Hybrid baculovirus-mediated prolonged hemagglutinin expression and secretion in vivo enhances the vaccine efficacy. J Taiwan Inst Chem Eng 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jtice.2018.05.044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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9
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Chang CY, Hsu WT, Chao YC, Chang HW. Display of Porcine Epidemic Diarrhea Virus Spike Protein on Baculovirus to Improve Immunogenicity and Protective Efficacy. Viruses 2018; 10:v10070346. [PMID: 29954081 PMCID: PMC6071207 DOI: 10.3390/v10070346] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2018] [Revised: 06/15/2018] [Accepted: 06/15/2018] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
A new variant of the porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV) is an emerging swine disease, killing considerable numbers of neonatal piglets in North America and Asia in recent years. To generate immunogens mimicking the complex spike (S) protein folding with proper posttranslational modification to mount a robust immune response against the highly virulent PEDV, two baculoviruses displaying the full-length S protein (S-Bac) and the S1 protein (S1-Bac) of the virulent Taiwan genotype 2b (G2b) PEDV Pintung 52 (PEDV-PT) strain were constructed. Intramuscular immunizations of mice and piglets with the S-Bac and S1-Bac demonstrated significantly higher levels of systemic anti-PEDV S-specific IgG, as compared with control group. Our results also showed that piglets in the S-Bac group elicited superior PEDV-specific neutralizing antibodies than those of the S1-Bac and control groups. The highly virulent PEDV-PT strain challenge experiment showed that piglets immunized with S-Bac and S1-Bac showed milder clinical symptoms with significantly less fecal viral shedding as compared with non-immunized control piglets. More importantly, piglets immunized with the S-Bac exhibited no to mild clinical signs, with a delayed, minimal viral shedding. Our results demonstrated that the S-Bac could serve as a safe, easy to manipulate, and effective vaccine candidate against the PEDV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chia-Yu Chang
- School of Veterinary Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei 106, Taiwan.
| | - Wei-Ting Hsu
- Institute of Molecular Biology, Academia Sinica, Nankang, Taipei 115, Taiwan.
| | - Yu-Chan Chao
- Institute of Molecular Biology, Academia Sinica, Nankang, Taipei 115, Taiwan.
| | - Hui-Wen Chang
- School of Veterinary Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei 106, Taiwan.
- Graduate Institute of Molecular and Comparative Pathobiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei 106, Taiwan.
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10
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Premanand B, Zhong Wee P, Prabakaran M. Baculovirus Surface Display of Immunogenic Proteins for Vaccine Development. Viruses 2018; 10:E298. [PMID: 29857561 PMCID: PMC6024371 DOI: 10.3390/v10060298] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2018] [Revised: 05/22/2018] [Accepted: 05/28/2018] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Vaccination is an efficient way to prevent the occurrence of many infectious diseases in humans. To date, several viral vectors have been utilized for the generation of vaccines. Among them, baculovirus-categorized as a nonhuman viral vector-has been used in wider applications. Its versatile features, like large cloning capacity, nonreplicative nature in mammalian cells, and broad tissue tropism, hold it at an excellent position among vaccine vectors. In addition to ease and safety during swift production, recent key improvements to existing baculovirus vectors (such as inclusion of hybrid promoters, immunostimulatory elements, etc.) have led to significant improvements in immunogenicity and efficacy of surface-displayed antigens. Furthermore, some promising preclinical results have been reported that mirror the scope and practicality of baculovirus as a vaccine vector for human applications in the near future. Herein, this review provides an overview of the induced immune responses by baculovirus surface-displayed vaccines against influenza and other infectious diseases in animal models, and highlights the strategies applied to enhance the protective immune responses against the displayed antigens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Balraj Premanand
- Temasek Life Sciences Laboratory, 1 Research Link, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117604, Singapore.
| | - Poh Zhong Wee
- Temasek Life Sciences Laboratory, 1 Research Link, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117604, Singapore.
| | - Mookkan Prabakaran
- Temasek Life Sciences Laboratory, 1 Research Link, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117604, Singapore.
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Bhat S, Sood R, Shukla S, Khandia R, Pateriya AK, Kumar N, Singh VK, Kalaiyarasu S, Kumar M, Bhatia S. A two dose immunization with an inactivated reassortant H5N2 virus protects chickens against lethal challenge with homologous 2.3.2.1 clade and heterologous 2.2 clade highly pathogenic avian influenza H5N1 viruses. Vet Microbiol 2018; 217:149-157. [PMID: 29615248 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2018.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2017] [Revised: 03/08/2018] [Accepted: 03/08/2018] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
The present study was aimed at generating a reassortant vaccine candidate virus with clade 2.3.2.1 Hemagglutinin (HA) and its evaluation in a challenge study for protection against homologous (2.3.2.1 clade) and heterologous (2.2 clade) highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1 viruses. Plasmid-based reverse genetics technique was used to rescue a 5 + 3 reassortant H5N2 strain containing the modified HA of H5N1 (clade 2.3.2.1), the Neuraminidase (NA) of H9N2, the Matrix (M) of H5N1 and the internal genes of A/WSN/33 H1N1. In addition, another 6 + 2 reassortant virus containing modified HA from H5N1 (clade 2.3.2.1), the NA from H9N2 and the internal genes of A/WSN/33 H1N1 was also rescued. The 5 + 3 reassortant H5N2 virus could grow to a higher titer in both MDCK cells and chicken eggs compared to the 6 + 2 reassortant H5N2 virus. The vaccine containing the inactivated 5 + 3 reassortant H5N2 virus was used in a two-dose immunization regime which protected specific pathogen free (SPF) chickens against two repeated challenges with homologous 2.3.2.1 clade and heterologous 2.2 clade HPAI H5N1 viruses. The 5 + 3 reassortant H5N2 virus based on clade 2.3.2.1 generated in this study can be effective in protecting chickens in the case of an outbreak caused by antigenically different clade 2.2 HPAI H5N1 viruses and opens the way to explore its applicability as potential vaccine candidate especially in the Asian countries reporting these clades frequently. The study also indicates that sequential immunization can broaden protection level against antigenically diverse strains of H5N1 viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sushant Bhat
- ICAR- National Institute of High Security Animal Diseases, Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India; Immunology Section, ICAR - Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Richa Sood
- ICAR- National Institute of High Security Animal Diseases, Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India
| | - Shweta Shukla
- ICAR- National Institute of High Security Animal Diseases, Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India
| | - Rekha Khandia
- ICAR- National Institute of High Security Animal Diseases, Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India
| | - Atul Kumar Pateriya
- ICAR- National Institute of High Security Animal Diseases, Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India
| | - Naveen Kumar
- ICAR- National Institute of High Security Animal Diseases, Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India
| | - Vikas Kumar Singh
- ICAR- National Institute of High Security Animal Diseases, Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India
| | - Semmannan Kalaiyarasu
- ICAR- National Institute of High Security Animal Diseases, Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India
| | - Manoj Kumar
- ICAR- National Institute of High Security Animal Diseases, Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India
| | - Sandeep Bhatia
- ICAR- National Institute of High Security Animal Diseases, Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India.
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12
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Cunha CEPD, Moreira C, Rocha ADSR, Finger PF, Magalhães CG, Ferreira MRA, Dellagostin OA, Moreira ÂN, Conceição FR. Parenteral adjuvant potential of recombinant B subunit of Escherichia coli heat-labile enterotoxin. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 2017; 112:812-816. [PMID: 29211241 PMCID: PMC5719549 DOI: 10.1590/0074-02760170133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2017] [Accepted: 07/29/2017] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The B subunit of Escherichia coli heat-labile enterotoxin
(LTB) is a potent mucosal immune adjuvant. However, there is little
information about LTB's potential as a parenteral adjuvant. OBJECTIVES We aimed at evaluating and better understanding rLTB's potential as a
parenteral adjuvant using the fused R1 repeat of Mycoplasma
hyopneumoniae P97 adhesin as an antigen to characterise the
humoral immune response induced by this construct and comparing it to that
generated when aluminium hydroxide is used as adjuvant instead. METHODS BALB/c mice were immunised intraperitoneally with either rLTBR1 or
recombinant R1 adsorbed onto aluminium hydroxide. The levels of systemic
anti-rR1 antibodies (total Ig, IgG1, IgG2a, and IgA) were assessed by
enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The ratio of IgG1 and IgG2a was
used to characterise a Th1, Th2, or mixed Th1/Th2 immune response. FINDINGS Western blot confirmed rR1, either alone or fused to LTB, remained antigenic;
anti-cholera toxin ELISA confirmed that LTB retained its activity when
expressed in a heterologous system. Mice immunised with the rLTBR1 fusion
protein produced approximately twice as much anti-rR1 immunoglobulins as
mice vaccinated with rR1 adsorbed onto aluminium hydroxide. Animals
vaccinated with either rLTBR1 or rR1 adsorbed onto aluminium hydroxide
presented a mixed Th1/Th2 immune response. We speculate this might be a
result of rR1 immune modulation rather than adjuvant modulation. Mice
immunised with rLTBR1 produced approximately 1.5-fold more serum IgA than
animals immunised with rR1 and aluminium hydroxide. MAIN CONCLUSIONS The results suggest that rLTB is a more powerful parenteral adjuvant than
aluminium hydroxide when administered intraperitoneally as it induced higher
antibody titres. Therefore, we recommend that rLTB be considered an
alternative adjuvant, even if different administration routes are
employed.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Clóvis Moreira
- Universidade Federal de Pelotas, Centro de Desenvolvimento Tecnológico, Biotecnologia, Pelotas, RS, Brasil
| | | | - Paula Fonseca Finger
- Universidade Federal de Pelotas, Centro de Desenvolvimento Tecnológico, Biotecnologia, Pelotas, RS, Brasil
| | - Carolina Georg Magalhães
- Universidade Federal de Pelotas, Centro de Desenvolvimento Tecnológico, Biotecnologia, Pelotas, RS, Brasil
| | | | - Odir Antônio Dellagostin
- Universidade Federal de Pelotas, Centro de Desenvolvimento Tecnológico, Biotecnologia, Pelotas, RS, Brasil
| | - Ângela Nunes Moreira
- Universidade Federal de Pelotas, Centro de Desenvolvimento Tecnológico, Biotecnologia, Pelotas, RS, Brasil
| | - Fabricio Rochedo Conceição
- Universidade Federal de Pelotas, Centro de Desenvolvimento Tecnológico, Biotecnologia, Pelotas, RS, Brasil
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13
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Zeinalzadeh N, Salmanian AH, Goujani G, Amani J, Ahangari G, Akhavian A, Jafari M. A Chimeric protein of CFA/I, CS6 subunits and LTB/STa toxoid protects immunized mice against enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli. Microbiol Immunol 2017; 61:272-279. [PMID: 28543534 DOI: 10.1111/1348-0421.12491] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2016] [Revised: 05/02/2017] [Accepted: 05/18/2017] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Enterotoxigenic Escherichia Coli (ETEC) strains are the commonest bacteria causing diarrhea in children in developing countries and travelers to these areas. Colonization factors (CFs) and enterotoxins are the main virulence determinants in ETEC pathogenesis. Heterogeneity of CFs is commonly considered the bottleneck to developing an effective vaccine. It is believed that broad spectrum protection against ETEC would be achieved by induced anti-CF and anti-enterotoxin immunity simultaneously. Here, a fusion antigen strategy was used to construct a quadrivalent recombinant protein called 3CL and composed of CfaB, a structural subunit of CFA/I, and CS6 structural subunits, LTB and STa toxoid of ETEC. Its anti-CF and antitoxin immunogenicity was then assessed. To achieve high-level expression, the 3CL gene was synthesized using E. coli codon bias. Female BALB/C mice were immunized with purified recombinant 3CL. Immunized mice developed antibodies that were capable of detecting each recombinant subunit in addition to native CS6 protein and also protected the mice against ETEC challenge. Moreover, sera from immunized mice also neutralized STa toxin in a suckling mouse assay. These results indicate that 3CL can induce anti-CF and neutralizing antitoxin antibodies along with introducing CFA/I as a platform for epitope insertion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Narges Zeinalzadeh
- Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Natural Science, University of Tabriz, Tabriz
| | - Ali Hatef Salmanian
- Department of Agricultural Biotechnology, National Institute of Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, Shahrak-e- Pajoohesh, km 15, Tehran-Karaj Highway
| | - Goli Goujani
- Department of Agricultural Biotechnology, National Institute of Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, Shahrak-e- Pajoohesh, km 15, Tehran-Karaj Highway
| | - Jafar Amani
- Applied Microbiology Research Center, Baqiyatallah University of Medical Sciences
| | - Ghasem Ahangari
- Department of Medical Biotechnology, National Institute of Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, Tehran, Iran
| | - Asal Akhavian
- Department of Agricultural Biotechnology, National Institute of Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, Shahrak-e- Pajoohesh, km 15, Tehran-Karaj Highway
| | - Mahyat Jafari
- Department of Agricultural Biotechnology, National Institute of Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, Shahrak-e- Pajoohesh, km 15, Tehran-Karaj Highway
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14
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Jiang Y, Yang G, Wang Q, Wang Z, Yang W, Gu W, Shi C, Wang J, Huang H, Wang C. Molecular mechanisms underlying protection against H9N2 influenza virus challenge in mice by recombinant Lactobacillus plantarum with surface displayed HA2-LTB. J Biotechnol 2017; 259:6-14. [PMID: 28811215 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiotec.2017.08.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2017] [Revised: 07/24/2017] [Accepted: 08/09/2017] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
It has been considered that the Avian influenza virus (AIV) causes severe threats to poultry industry. In this study, we constructed a series of recombinant Lactobacillus plantarum (L. plantarum) with surface displayed hemagglutinin subunit 2 (HA2) alone or together with heat-labile toxin B subunit (LTB) from enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli. Balb/c mice were used as model to evaluate the protective effects of recombinant L. plantarum strains against H9N2 subtype challenge. The results showed that the presence of LTB significantly increased the percentages of CD3+CD4+IL-4+, CD3+CD4+IFN-γ+ and CD3+CD4+IL-17+ T cells, as well as CD3+CD8+IFN-γ+ T cells in spleen and MLNs determined by Fluorescence-Activated Cell Sorting assay. Similar increased production of serum IFN-γ was also confirmed by enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The L. plantarum with surface displayed HA2-LTB also dramatically increased the percentages of B220+ IgA+ B cells in peyer patch, in consistent with elevated production of mucosal SIgA antibody determined by ELISA. Finally, the orally administrated HA2-LTB expressing strain efficiently protected mice against H9N2 subtype AIV challenge shown by increased survival percentages, body weight gains and decreased lung lesions in histopathologic analysis. In conclusion, this study provides more detail mechanisms underlying the adjuvant effects of LTB on heterologous antigen produced in recombinant lactic acid bacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanlong Jiang
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Jilin Provincial Engineering Research Center of Animal Probiotics, Key Laboratory of Animal Production and Product Quality Safety of Ministry of Education, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun, 130118, China
| | - Guilian Yang
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Jilin Provincial Engineering Research Center of Animal Probiotics, Key Laboratory of Animal Production and Product Quality Safety of Ministry of Education, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun, 130118, China
| | - Qi Wang
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Jilin Provincial Engineering Research Center of Animal Probiotics, Key Laboratory of Animal Production and Product Quality Safety of Ministry of Education, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun, 130118, China
| | - Zhannan Wang
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Jilin Provincial Engineering Research Center of Animal Probiotics, Key Laboratory of Animal Production and Product Quality Safety of Ministry of Education, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun, 130118, China
| | - Wentao Yang
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Jilin Provincial Engineering Research Center of Animal Probiotics, Key Laboratory of Animal Production and Product Quality Safety of Ministry of Education, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun, 130118, China
| | - Wei Gu
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Jilin Provincial Engineering Research Center of Animal Probiotics, Key Laboratory of Animal Production and Product Quality Safety of Ministry of Education, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun, 130118, China; Shandong Baolai-Leelai Bio-Tech Co., LTD, Taian, Shandong Province, 171000, China
| | - Chunwei Shi
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Jilin Provincial Engineering Research Center of Animal Probiotics, Key Laboratory of Animal Production and Product Quality Safety of Ministry of Education, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun, 130118, China
| | - Jianzhong Wang
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Jilin Provincial Engineering Research Center of Animal Probiotics, Key Laboratory of Animal Production and Product Quality Safety of Ministry of Education, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun, 130118, China
| | - Haibin Huang
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Jilin Provincial Engineering Research Center of Animal Probiotics, Key Laboratory of Animal Production and Product Quality Safety of Ministry of Education, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun, 130118, China
| | - Chunfeng Wang
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Jilin Provincial Engineering Research Center of Animal Probiotics, Key Laboratory of Animal Production and Product Quality Safety of Ministry of Education, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun, 130118, China.
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15
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Kato T, Itagaki K, Yoshimoto M, Hiramatsu R, Suhaimi H, Kohsaka T, Park EY. Transduction of a Neospora caninum antigen gene into mammalian cells using a modified Bombyx mori nucleopolyhedrovirus for antibody production. J Biosci Bioeng 2017; 124:606-610. [PMID: 28716628 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiosc.2017.06.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2017] [Revised: 06/23/2017] [Accepted: 06/26/2017] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Autographa californica multiple nucleopolyhedrovirus (AcMNPV) can easily enter and transduce foreign genes into mammalian cells, but these functions are difficult for Bombyx mori nucleopolyhedrovirus (BmNPV). In this study, we investigated the induction of antibody production in mice immunized with an engineered BmNPV. The GP64 of BmNPV (BmGP64) was replaced with the GP64 of AcMNPV (AcGP64); this construct, designated BmNPVΔbgp/AcGP64, displays AcGP64 on the surface of BmNPV. The Neospora caninum antigen (NcSRS2) expression cassette, consisting of the cytomegalovirus immediate-early promoter and NcSRS2 from N. caninum, was inserted into BmNPVΔbgp/AcGP64; this construct was designated BmNPVΔbgp/AcGP64/SRS2. For comparison, AcMNPV/SRS2, which contains the same NcSRS2 expression cassette as for BmNPVΔbgp/AcGP64, was also constructed. NcSRS2 was expressed in HEK293T cells when the engineered BmNPVs were transduced at a multiplicity of infection of 150. BmNPVΔbgp/AcGP64/SRS2 induced the production of NcSRS2-specific antibodies in mice, whereas AcMNPV/SRS2 and the control BmNPV did not. These results suggest that BmNPV prepared from silkworm hemolymph induces the production of antigen-specific antibodies in immunized mice and can be used for antibody production and vaccine development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tatsuya Kato
- Laboratory of Biotechnology, Research Institute of Green Science and Technology, Shizuoka University, 836 Ohya Suruga-ku, Shizuoka 422-8529, Japan; Laboratory of Biotechnology, Division of Applied Biological Chemistry, College of Agriculture, Shizuoka University, 836 Ohya Suruga-ku, Shizuoka 422-8529, Japan; Laboratory of Biotechnology, Department of Bioscience, Graduate School of Science and Technology, Shizuoka University, 836 Ohya, Suruga-ku, Shizuoka 422-8529, Japan
| | - Kohei Itagaki
- Laboratory of Biotechnology, Division of Applied Biological Chemistry, College of Agriculture, Shizuoka University, 836 Ohya Suruga-ku, Shizuoka 422-8529, Japan
| | - Mai Yoshimoto
- Laboratory of Biotechnology, Division of Applied Biological Chemistry, College of Agriculture, Shizuoka University, 836 Ohya Suruga-ku, Shizuoka 422-8529, Japan
| | - Rikito Hiramatsu
- Laboratory of Biotechnology, Division of Applied Biological Chemistry, College of Agriculture, Shizuoka University, 836 Ohya Suruga-ku, Shizuoka 422-8529, Japan
| | - Hamizah Suhaimi
- Laboratory of Biotechnology, Department of Bioscience, Graduate School of Science and Technology, Shizuoka University, 836 Ohya, Suruga-ku, Shizuoka 422-8529, Japan
| | - Tetsuya Kohsaka
- Laboratory of Biotechnology, Division of Applied Biological Chemistry, College of Agriculture, Shizuoka University, 836 Ohya Suruga-ku, Shizuoka 422-8529, Japan
| | - Enoch Y Park
- Laboratory of Biotechnology, Research Institute of Green Science and Technology, Shizuoka University, 836 Ohya Suruga-ku, Shizuoka 422-8529, Japan; Laboratory of Biotechnology, Division of Applied Biological Chemistry, College of Agriculture, Shizuoka University, 836 Ohya Suruga-ku, Shizuoka 422-8529, Japan; Laboratory of Biotechnology, Department of Bioscience, Graduate School of Science and Technology, Shizuoka University, 836 Ohya, Suruga-ku, Shizuoka 422-8529, Japan.
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16
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Zhang Z, Zhang J, Zhang J, Li Q, Miao P, Liu J, Li S, Huang J, Liao M, Fan H. Coimmunization with recombinant epitope-expressing baculovirus enhances protective effects of inactivated H5N1 vaccine against heterologous virus. Vet Microbiol 2017; 203:143-148. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2017.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2016] [Revised: 03/01/2017] [Accepted: 03/02/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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17
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Kolpe A, Schepens B, Fiers W, Saelens X. M2-based influenza vaccines: recent advances and clinical potential. Expert Rev Vaccines 2016; 16:123-136. [DOI: 10.1080/14760584.2017.1240041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Annasaheb Kolpe
- Medical Biotechnology Center, VIB, Ghent, B-9052, Belgium
- Department of Biomedical Molecular Biology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Bert Schepens
- Medical Biotechnology Center, VIB, Ghent, B-9052, Belgium
- Department of Biomedical Molecular Biology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Walter Fiers
- Medical Biotechnology Center, VIB, Ghent, B-9052, Belgium
- Department of Biomedical Molecular Biology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Xavier Saelens
- Medical Biotechnology Center, VIB, Ghent, B-9052, Belgium
- Department of Biomedical Molecular Biology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
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