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Boeters M, Garcia-Morante B, van Schaik G, Segalés J, Rushton J, Steeneveld W. The economic impact of endemic respiratory disease in pigs and related interventions - a systematic review. Porcine Health Manag 2023; 9:45. [PMID: 37848972 PMCID: PMC10583309 DOI: 10.1186/s40813-023-00342-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2023] [Accepted: 10/07/2023] [Indexed: 10/19/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Understanding the financial consequences of endemically prevalent pathogens within the porcine respiratory disease complex (PRDC) and the effects of interventions assists decision-making regarding disease prevention and control. The aim of this systematic review was to identify what economic studies have been carried out on infectious endemic respiratory disease in pigs, what methods are being used, and, when feasible, to identify the economic impacts of PRDC pathogens and the costs and benefits of interventions. RESULTS By following the PRISMA method, a total of 58 studies were deemed eligible for the purpose of this systematic review. Twenty-six studies used data derived from European countries, 18 from the US, 6 from Asia, 4 from Oceania, and 4 from other countries, i.e., Canada, Mexico, and Brazil. Main findings from selected publications were: (1) The studies mainly considered endemic scenarios on commercial fattening farms; (2) The porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus was by far the most studied pathogen, followed by Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae, but the absence or presence of other endemic respiratory pathogens was often not verified or accounted for; (3) Most studies calculated the economic impact using primary production data, whereas twelve studies modelled the impact using secondary data only; (4) Seven different economic methods were applied across studies; (5) A large variation exists in the cost and revenue components considered in calculations, with feed costs and reduced carcass value included the most often; (6) The reported median economic impact of one or several co-existing respiratory pathogen(s) ranged from €1.70 to €8.90 per nursery pig, €2.30 to €15.35 per fattening pig, and €100 to €323 per sow per year; and (7) Vaccination was the most studied intervention, and the outcomes of all but three intervention-focused studies were neutral or positive. CONCLUSION The outcomes and discussion from this systematic review provide insight into the studies, their methods, the advantages and limitations of the existing research, and the reported impacts from the endemic respiratory disease complex for pig production systems worldwide. Future research should improve the consistency and comparability of economic assessments by ensuring the inclusion of high impact cost and revenue components and expressing results similarly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marloes Boeters
- Department of Population Health Sciences, section Farm Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Beatriz Garcia-Morante
- IRTA. Programa de Sanitat Animal. Centre de Recerca en Sanitat Animal (CReSA), Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), Campus, Bellaterra, Catalonia 08193 Spain
- WOAH Collaborating Centre for the Research and Control of Emerging and Re-Emerging Swine Diseases in Europe (IRTA-CReSA), Bellaterra, 08193 Spain
- Unitat Mixta d’Investigació IRTA-UAB en Sanitat Animal, Centre de Recerca en Sanitat Animal (CReSA), Campus de la Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), Bellaterra, 08193 Spain
| | - Gerdien van Schaik
- Department of Population Health Sciences, section Farm Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
- Royal GD, Deventer, the Netherlands
| | - Joaquim Segalés
- WOAH Collaborating Centre for the Research and Control of Emerging and Re-Emerging Swine Diseases in Europe (IRTA-CReSA), Bellaterra, 08193 Spain
- Unitat Mixta d’Investigació IRTA-UAB en Sanitat Animal, Centre de Recerca en Sanitat Animal (CReSA), Campus de la Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB), Bellaterra, 08193 Spain
- Departament de Sanitat i Anatomia Animals, Facultat de Veterinària, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, 08193 Spain
| | - Jonathan Rushton
- Institute of Infection, Veterinary and Ecological Sciences, School of Health and Life Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
- Global Burden of Animal Diseases (GBADs) Programme, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| | - Wilma Steeneveld
- Department of Population Health Sciences, section Farm Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
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Removal of the E rns RNase Activity and of the 3' Untranslated Region Polyuridine Insertion in a Low-Virulence Classical Swine Fever Virus Triggers a Cytokine Storm and Lethal Disease. J Virol 2022; 96:e0043822. [PMID: 35758667 PMCID: PMC9327722 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00438-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
In this study, we assessed the potential synergistic effect of the Erns RNase activity and the poly-U insertion in the 3′ untranslated region (UTR) of the low-virulence classical swine fever virus (CSFV) isolate Pinar de Rio (PdR) in innate and adaptive immunity regulation and its relationship with classical swine fever (CSF) pathogenesis in pigs. We knocked out the Erns RNase activity of PdR and replaced the long polyuridine sequence of the 3′ UTR with 5 uridines found typically at this position, resulting in a double mutant, vPdR-H30K-5U. This mutant induced severe CSF in 5-day-old piglets and 3-week-old pigs, with higher lethality in the newborn (89.5%) than in the older (33.3%) pigs. However, the viremia and viral excretion were surprisingly low, while the virus load was high in the tonsils. Only alpha interferon (IFN-α) and interleukin 12 (IL-12) were highly and consistently elevated in the two groups. Additionally, high IL-8 levels were found in the newborn but not in the older pigs. This points toward a role of these cytokines in the CSF outcome, with age-related differences. The disproportional activation of innate immunity might limit systemic viral spread from the tonsils and increase virus clearance, inducing strong cytokine-mediated symptoms. Infection with vPdR-H30K-5U resulted in poor neutralizing antibody responses compared with results obtained previously with the parent and RNase knockout PdR. This study shows for the first time the synergistic effect of the 3′ UTR and the Erns RNase function in regulating innate immunity against CSFV, favoring virus replication in target tissue and thus contributing to disease severity. IMPORTANCE CSF is one of the most relevant viral epizootic diseases of swine, with high economic and sanitary impact. Systematic stamping out of infected herds with and without vaccination has permitted regional virus eradication. However, the causative agent, CSFV, persists in certain areas of the world, leading to disease reemergence. Nowadays, low- and moderate-virulence strains that could induce unapparent CSF forms are prevalent, posing a challenge for disease eradication. Here, we show for the first time the synergistic role of lacking the Erns RNase activity and the 3′ UTR polyuridine insertion from a low-virulence CSFV isolate in innate immunity disproportional activation. This might limit systemic viral spread to the tonsils and increase virus clearance, inducing strong cytokine-mediated symptoms, thus contributing to disease severity. These results highlight the role played by the Erns RNase activity and the 3′ UTR in CSFV pathogenesis, providing new perspectives for novel diagnostic tools and vaccine strategies.
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Razzuoli E, Armando F, De Paolis L, Ciurkiewicz M, Amadori M. The Swine IFN System in Viral Infections: Major Advances and Translational Prospects. Pathogens 2022; 11:175. [PMID: 35215119 PMCID: PMC8875149 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens11020175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2021] [Revised: 01/22/2022] [Accepted: 01/24/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Interferons (IFNs) are a family of cytokines that play a pivotal role in orchestrating the innate immune response during viral infections, thus representing the first line of defense in the host. After binding to their respective receptors, they are able to elicit a plethora of biological activities, by initiating signaling cascades which lead to the transcription of genes involved in antiviral, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory and antitumoral effector mechanisms. In hindsight, it is not surprising that viruses have evolved multiple IFN escape strategies toward efficient replication in the host. Hence, in order to achieve insight into preventive and treatment strategies, it is essential to explore the mechanisms underlying the IFN response to viral infections and the constraints thereof. Accordingly, this review is focused on three RNA and three DNA viruses of major importance in the swine farming sector, aiming to provide essential data as to how the IFN system modulates the antiviral immune response, and is affected by diverse, virus-driven, immune escape mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisabetta Razzuoli
- National Reference Center of Veterinary and Comparative Oncology (CEROVEC), Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Piemonte, Liguria e Valle D’Aosta, Piazza Borgo Pila 39/24, 16129 Genoa, Italy;
| | - Federico Armando
- Department of Pathology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Bünteweg 17, 30559 Hannover, Germany; (F.A.); (M.C.)
| | - Livia De Paolis
- National Reference Center of Veterinary and Comparative Oncology (CEROVEC), Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Piemonte, Liguria e Valle D’Aosta, Piazza Borgo Pila 39/24, 16129 Genoa, Italy;
| | - Malgorzata Ciurkiewicz
- Department of Pathology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Bünteweg 17, 30559 Hannover, Germany; (F.A.); (M.C.)
| | - Massimo Amadori
- National Network of Veterinary Immunology (RNIV), Via Istria 3, 25125 Brescia, Italy;
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Wang M, Bohórquez JA, Hinojosa Y, Muñoz-González S, Gerber M, Coronado L, Perera CL, Liniger M, Ruggli N, Ganges L. Abrogation of the RNase activity of E rns in a low virulence classical swine fever virus enhances the humoral immune response and reduces virulence, transmissibility, and persistence in pigs. Virulence 2021; 12:2037-2049. [PMID: 34339338 PMCID: PMC8331007 DOI: 10.1080/21505594.2021.1959715] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The prevalence of low virulence classical swine fever virus (CSFV) strains makes viral eradication difficult in endemic countries. However, the determinants for natural CSFV attenuation and persistence in the field remain unidentified. The aim of the present study was to assess the role of the RNase activity of CSFV Erns in pathogenesis, immune response, persistent infection, and viral transmission in pigs. To this end, a functional cDNA clone pPdR-H30K-36U with an Erns lacking RNase activity was constructed based on the low virulence CSFV field isolate Pinar de Rio (PdR). Eighteen 5-day-old piglets were infected with vPdR-H30K-36U. Nine piglets were introduced as contacts. The vPdR-H30K-36U virus was attenuated in piglets compared to the parental vPdR-36U. Only RNA traces were detected in sera and body secretions and no virus was isolated from tonsils, showing that RNase inactivation may reduce CSFV persistence and transmissibility. The vPdR-H30K-36U mutant strongly activated the interferon-α (IFN-α) production in plasmacytoid dendritic cells, while in vivo, the IFN-α response was variable, from moderate to undetectable depending on the animal. This suggests a role of the CSFV Erns RNase activity in the regulation of innate immune responses. Infection with vPdR-H30K-36U resulted in higher antibody levels against the E2 and Erns glycoproteins and in enhanced neutralizing antibody responses when compared with vPdR-36U. These results pave the way toward a better understanding of viral attenuation mechanisms of CSFV in pigs. In addition, they provide novel insights relevant for the development of DIVA vaccines in combination with diagnostic assays for efficient CSF control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miaomiao Wang
- OIE Reference Laboratory for Classical Swine Fever, IRTA-CReSA, Barcelona, Spain
| | | | - Yoandry Hinojosa
- Division of Virology, Institute of Virology and Immunology IVI, Mittelhäusern, Switzerland.,Department of Infectious Diseases and Pathobiology (DIP), Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland.,Graduate School for Cellular and Biomedical Sciences (GCB), University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland.,Centro Nacional De Sanidad Agropecuaria (CENSA), Mayabeque, Cuba
| | - Sara Muñoz-González
- OIE Reference Laboratory for Classical Swine Fever, IRTA-CReSA, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Markus Gerber
- Division of Virology, Institute of Virology and Immunology IVI, Mittelhäusern, Switzerland.,Department of Infectious Diseases and Pathobiology (DIP), Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Liani Coronado
- Centro Nacional De Sanidad Agropecuaria (CENSA), Mayabeque, Cuba
| | | | - Matthias Liniger
- Division of Virology, Institute of Virology and Immunology IVI, Mittelhäusern, Switzerland.,Department of Infectious Diseases and Pathobiology (DIP), Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Nicolas Ruggli
- Division of Virology, Institute of Virology and Immunology IVI, Mittelhäusern, Switzerland.,Department of Infectious Diseases and Pathobiology (DIP), Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Llilianne Ganges
- OIE Reference Laboratory for Classical Swine Fever, IRTA-CReSA, Barcelona, Spain
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Ferlazzo G, Ruggeri J, Boniotti MB, Guarneri F, Barbieri I, Tonni M, Bertasio C, Alborali GL, Amadori M. In vitro Cytokine Responses to Virulent PRRS Virus Strains. Front Vet Sci 2020; 7:335. [PMID: 32760741 PMCID: PMC7373743 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2020.00335] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2020] [Accepted: 05/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome (PRRS) affects farmed swine causing heavy direct and indirect losses. The infections sustained by PRRS viruses (PRRSV-1 and PRRSV-2) may give rise to severe clinical cases. This highlights the issue of PRRSV pathogenicity and relevant markers thereof. Since PRRSV strains can be discriminated in terms of immunotypes, we aimed to detect possible correlates of virulence in vitro based on the profile of innate immune responses induced by strains of diverse virulence. To this purpose, 10 field PRRSV isolates were investigated in assays of innate immune response to detect possible features associated with virulence. Tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin (IL)-1beta, IL-8, IL-10, and caspase-1 were measured in cultures of PRRSV-treated peripheral blood mononuclear cells of PRRS-naive pigs, unable to support PRRSV replication. Two reference PRRSV strains (highly pathogenic and attenuated, respectively), were included in the screening. The PRRSV strains isolated from field cases were shown to vary widely in terms of inflammatory cytokine responses in vitro, which were substantially lacking with some strains including the reference, highly pathogenic one. In particular, neither the field PRRSV isolates nor the reference highly pathogenic strain gave rise to an IL-1beta response, which was consistently induced by the attenuated strain, only. This pattern of response was reversed in an inflammatory environment, in which the attenuated strain reduced the ongoing IL-1beta response. Results indicate that some pathogenic PRRSV strains can prevent a primary inflammatory response of PBMCs, associated with reduced permissiveness of mature macrophages for PRRSV replication in later phases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gianluca Ferlazzo
- Laboratory of Animal Welfare, Clinical Chemistry and Veterinary Immunology, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell'Emilia Romagna, Brescia, Italy
| | - Jessica Ruggeri
- Laboratory of Animal Welfare, Clinical Chemistry and Veterinary Immunology, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell'Emilia Romagna, Brescia, Italy
| | - Maria Beatrice Boniotti
- Genomics Department, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell'Emilia Romagna, Brescia, Italy
| | - Flavia Guarneri
- Laboratory of Animal Welfare, Clinical Chemistry and Veterinary Immunology, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell'Emilia Romagna, Brescia, Italy
| | - Ilaria Barbieri
- Genomics Department, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell'Emilia Romagna, Brescia, Italy
| | - Matteo Tonni
- Diagnostic Laboratory, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell'Emilia Romagna, Brescia, Italy
| | - Cristina Bertasio
- Genomics Department, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell'Emilia Romagna, Brescia, Italy
| | - Giovanni Loris Alborali
- Diagnostic Laboratory, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell'Emilia Romagna, Brescia, Italy
| | - Massimo Amadori
- Laboratory of Animal Welfare, Clinical Chemistry and Veterinary Immunology, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell'Emilia Romagna, Brescia, Italy
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A Polyuridine Insertion in the 3' Untranslated Region of Classical Swine Fever Virus Activates Immunity and Reduces Viral Virulence in Piglets. J Virol 2020; 94:JVI.01214-19. [PMID: 31645448 PMCID: PMC6955259 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01214-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2019] [Accepted: 10/11/2019] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Classical swine fever (CSF), a highly contagious viral disease of pigs, is still endemic in some countries of Asia and Central and South America. Considering that the 3′ untranslated region (3′ UTR) plays an important role in flavivirus replication, the present study showed for the first time that a long polyuridine sequence acquired in the 3′ UTR by an endemic CSFV isolate can activate immunity, control viral replication, and modulate disease in piglets. Our findings provide new avenues for the development of novel vaccines against infections with CSF virus and other flaviviruses. Knowledge of molecular virulence determinants is also relevant for future development of rapid and efficient diagnostic tools for the prediction of the virulence of field isolates and for efficient CSF control. Low-virulence classical swine fever virus (CSFV) strains make CSF eradication particularly difficult. Few data are available on the molecular determinants of CSFV virulence. The aim of the present study was to assess a possible role for CSFV virulence of a unique, uninterrupted 36-uridine (poly-U) sequence found in the 3′ untranslated region (3′ UTR) of the low-virulence CSFV isolate Pinar de Rio (PdR). To this end, a pair of cDNA-derived viruses based on the PdR backbone were generated, one carrying the long poly-U insertion in the 3′ UTR (vPdR-36U) and the other harboring the standard 5 uridines at this position (vPdR-5U). Two groups of 20 5-day-old piglets were infected with vPdR-36U and vPdR-5U. Ten contact piglets were added to each group. Disease progression, virus replication, and immune responses were monitored for 5 weeks. The vPdR-5U virus was significantly more virulent than the vPdR-36U virus, with more severe disease, higher mortality, and significantly higher viral loads in serum and body secretions, despite similar replication characteristics in cell culture. The two viruses were transmitted to all contact piglets. Ninety percent of the piglets infected with vPdR-36U seroconverted, while only one vPdR-5U-infected piglet developed antibodies. The vPdR-5U-infected piglets showed only transient alpha interferon (IFN-α) responses in serum after 1 week of infection, while the vPdR-36U-infected piglets showed sustained IFN-α levels during the first 2 weeks. Taken together, these data show that the 3′ UTR poly-U insertion acquired by the PdR isolate reduces viral virulence and activates the innate and humoral immune responses without affecting viral transmission. IMPORTANCE Classical swine fever (CSF), a highly contagious viral disease of pigs, is still endemic in some countries of Asia and Central and South America. Considering that the 3′ untranslated region (3′ UTR) plays an important role in flavivirus replication, the present study showed for the first time that a long polyuridine sequence acquired in the 3′ UTR by an endemic CSFV isolate can activate immunity, control viral replication, and modulate disease in piglets. Our findings provide new avenues for the development of novel vaccines against infections with CSF virus and other flaviviruses. Knowledge of molecular virulence determinants is also relevant for future development of rapid and efficient diagnostic tools for the prediction of the virulence of field isolates and for efficient CSF control.
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Wang G, Yu Y, Cai X, Zhou EM, Zimmerman JJ. Effects of PRRSV Infection on the Porcine Thymus. Trends Microbiol 2019; 28:212-223. [PMID: 31744664 DOI: 10.1016/j.tim.2019.10.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2019] [Revised: 10/15/2019] [Accepted: 10/17/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) dramatically affects the thymus and its ability to carry out its normal functions. In particular, infection incapacitates PRRSV-susceptible CD14pos antigen-presenting cells (APCs) in the thymus and throughout the body. PRRSV-induced autophagy in thymic epithelial cells modulates the development of T cells, and PRRSV-induced apoptosis in CD4posCD8pos thymocytes modulates cellular immunity against PRRSV and other pathogens. Pigs are less able to resist and/or eliminate secondary infectious agents due the effect of PRRSV on the thymus, and this susceptibility phenomenon is long recognized as a primary characteristic of PRRSV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gang Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, China; Department of Veterinary Diagnostic and Production Animal Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA.
| | - Ying Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, China; College of Veterinary Medicine, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao, China
| | - Xuehui Cai
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, China
| | - En-Min Zhou
- Department of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi, China
| | - Jeffrey J Zimmerman
- Department of Veterinary Diagnostic and Production Animal Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA.
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