1
|
Rendle D, Hughes K, Bowen M, Bull K, Cameron I, Furtado T, Peachey L, Sharpe L, Hodgkinson J. BEVA primary care clinical guidelines: Equine parasite control. Equine Vet J 2024; 56:392-423. [PMID: 38169127 DOI: 10.1111/evj.14036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2023] [Accepted: 11/16/2023] [Indexed: 01/05/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND There is a lack of consensus on how best to balance our need to minimise the risk of parasite-associated disease in the individual horse, with the need to limit the use of anthelmintics in the population to preserve their efficacy through delaying further development of resistance. OBJECTIVES To develop evidence-based guidelines utilising a modified GRADE framework. METHODS A panel of veterinary scientists with relevant expertise and experience was convened. Relevant research questions were identified and developed with associated search terms being defined. Evidence in the veterinary literature was evaluated using the GRADE evidence-to-decision framework. Literature searches were performed utilising CAB abstracts and PubMed. Where there was insufficient evidence to answer the research question the panel developed practical guidance based on their collective knowledge and experience. RESULTS Search results are presented, and recommendation or practical guidance were made in response to 37 clinically relevant questions relating to the use of anthelmintics in horses. MAIN LIMITATIONS There was insufficient evidence to answer many of the questions with any degree of certainty and practical guidance frequently had to be based upon extrapolation of relevant information and the panel members' collective experience and opinions. CONCLUSIONS Equine parasite control practices and current recommendations have a weak evidence base. These guidelines highlight changes in equine parasite control that should be considered to reduce the threat of parasite-associated disease and delay the development of further anthelmintic resistance.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Kristopher Hughes
- School of Agricultural, Environmental and Veterinary Sciences, Charles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Mark Bowen
- Medicine Vet Referrals, Nottinghamshire, UK
| | - Katie Bull
- Bristol Veterinary School, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
| | | | - Tamzin Furtado
- Institute of Infection, Veterinary and Ecological Sciences, University of Liverpool, Neston, UK
| | - Laura Peachey
- Bristol Veterinary School, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
| | | | - Jane Hodgkinson
- Institute of Infection, Veterinary and Ecological Sciences, University of Liverpool, Neston, UK
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Cai E, Wu R, Wu Y, Gao Y, Zhu Y, Li J. A systematic review and meta-analysis on the current status of anthelmintic resistance in equine nematodes: A global perspective. Mol Biochem Parasitol 2024; 257:111600. [PMID: 38030084 DOI: 10.1016/j.molbiopara.2023.111600] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2023] [Revised: 11/22/2023] [Accepted: 11/22/2023] [Indexed: 12/01/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The intensive application of anthelmintics in equine has led to considerable resistance in cyathostomins and Parascaris equorum. It has been well documented that benzimidazole (BZ) and pyrantel resistance is widespread in cyathostomins and Parascaris equorum. Since no new classes of anthelmintic have been introduced in the last 40 years, it is critical to be aware of the current risk factors of anthelmintic application to avoid further resistance. OBJECTIVE To review the factors affecting the level of anthelmintics resistance in equine around the world, type of anthelmintics, mode of application, dosage, nematode species, and location of anthelmintics application were evaluated and summarized. DESIGN/PROCEDURE A systematic review and meta-analyses following the PRISMA Framework were conducted to identify, evaluate, and synthesize primary literature reporting the efficacy of anthelmintic drugs in equines. Information on the bibliographic data, anthelmintic drugs, animals, continents, parasite genera, type of anthelmintics, and dosage was collected. Nonparametric tests (Kruskal-Wallis and Mann-Whitney) were used in SPSS (v.27) to investigate the association between variables. Factors that have a significant impact on efficacy have been subjected to binary logistic regression. Six meta-analyses were conducted in Microsoft Excel (2021) to qualify current resistance issues of the three major anthelmintics classes. RESULTS The final database was composed of 60 articles published between 1994 and 2022 with a total of 11835 animals. Anthelmintic class as well as anthelmintic active principle selection did have a significant effect on resistance (P < 0.01), whilst no correlation of the type of anthelmintics, mode of application, and dosage with efficacy were found. Anthelmintics resistance in ascarid was significantly more severe than in strongyle (P < 0.01). Macrocyclic lactone (ML) class and the benzimidazole and probenzimidazole (BP) class have the lowest efficacy against ascarid and strongyle, respectively (67.83% and 69.85%). The effect of location (by continent) also had a significant influence on the resistance of the ML class (P < 0.01). The resistance of the BP class which is the most prevalently applied was demonstrated in all six continents. Binary logistic regression revealed that parasite genera and drug class independently influenced the presence of drug resistance. The forest plots included in this study did not show a significant difference over time. CONCLUSION Current evidence indicated that anthelmintics resistance of ML and BP class were common in ascarid and strongyle. A combination of anthelmintics may reduce anthelmintics resistance, but multi-drug resistance may be a concern. Customerised anthelmintics strategy could help reduce resistance.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Enjia Cai
- Equine Clinical Diagnostic Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Rongzheng Wu
- Equine Clinical Diagnostic Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Yuhong Wu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN 55108, United States
| | - Yu Gao
- University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover Foundation, Hannover D-30559, Germany
| | - Yiping Zhu
- Equine Clinical Diagnostic Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China.
| | - Jing Li
- Equine Clinical Diagnostic Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Lu Y, Deng L, Peng Z, Zhou M, Wang C, Han L, Huang S, Wei M, Wei R, Tian L, Li D, Hou Z. Investigation of the Efficacy of Pyrantel Pamoate, Mebendazole, Albendazole, and Ivermectin against Baylisascaris schroederi in Captive Giant Pandas. Animals (Basel) 2022; 13:ani13010142. [PMID: 36611749 PMCID: PMC9817530 DOI: 10.3390/ani13010142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2022] [Revised: 12/13/2022] [Accepted: 12/21/2022] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Baylisascaris schroederi is one of the main health risks threatening both wild and captive giant pandas. The administration of anthelmintics is a common method to effectively control B. schroederi infection, but there is a notable risk of anthelmintic resistance (AR) after long-term, constant use of anthelmintics. Four anthelmintics-pyrantel pamoate (PYR), mebendazole (MBZ), albendazole (ABZ), and ivermectin (IVM)-were each administered separately at intervals of 2 months to 22 enrolled giant pandas. The fecal egg count reduction (FECR) proportions were calculated by both the Markov chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) Bayesian mathematical model and the arithmetic mean. AR was assessed based on the criteria recommended by the World Association for the Advancement of Veterinary Parasitology (WAAVP). The estimated prevalence of B. schroederi infection was 34.1%. After treatment with PYR, MBZ, ABZ, and IVM, it was determined that MBZ, ABZ, and IVM were efficacious against B. schroederi, while nematodes were suspected to be resistant to PYR according to the fecal egg count reduction (FECR) proportions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yaxian Lu
- College of Wildlife and Protected Area, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin 150040, China
| | - Linhua Deng
- China Conservation and Research Centre for the Giant Panda, Dujiangyan 611843, China
| | - Zhiwei Peng
- College of Wildlife and Protected Area, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin 150040, China
| | - Mengchao Zhou
- College of Wildlife and Protected Area, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin 150040, China
| | - Chengdong Wang
- China Conservation and Research Centre for the Giant Panda, Dujiangyan 611843, China
| | - Lei Han
- College of Wildlife and Protected Area, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin 150040, China
| | - Shan Huang
- China Conservation and Research Centre for the Giant Panda, Dujiangyan 611843, China
| | - Ming Wei
- China Conservation and Research Centre for the Giant Panda, Dujiangyan 611843, China
| | - Rongping Wei
- China Conservation and Research Centre for the Giant Panda, Dujiangyan 611843, China
| | - Lihong Tian
- College of Wildlife and Protected Area, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin 150040, China
| | - Desheng Li
- China Conservation and Research Centre for the Giant Panda, Dujiangyan 611843, China
- Correspondence:
| | - Zhijun Hou
- College of Wildlife and Protected Area, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin 150040, China
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
The microbial community associated with Parascaris spp. infecting juvenile horses. Parasit Vectors 2022; 15:408. [PMID: 36333754 PMCID: PMC9636743 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-022-05533-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2022] [Accepted: 10/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Parasitic nematodes, including large roundworms colloquially known as ascarids, affect the health and well-being of livestock animals worldwide. The equine ascarids, Parascaris spp., are important parasites of juvenile horses and the first ascarids to develop widespread anthelmintic resistance. The microbiota has been shown to be an important factor in the fitness of many organisms, including parasitic nematodes, where endosymbiotic Wolbachia have been exploited for treatment of filariasis in humans. Methods This study used short-read 16S rRNA sequences and Illumina sequencing to characterize and compare microbiota of whole worm small intestinal stages and microbiota of male and female intestines and gonads. Diversity metrics including alpha and beta diversity, and the differential abundance analyses DESeq2, ANCOM-BC, corncob, and metagenomeSeq were used for comparisons. Results Alpha and beta diversity of whole worm microbiota did not differ significantly between groups, but Simpson alpha diversity was significantly different between female intestine (FI) and male gonad (MG) (P= 0.0018), and Shannon alpha diversity was significantly different between female and male gonads (P = 0.0130), FI and horse jejunum (HJ) (P = 0.0383), and FI and MG (P= 0.0001). Beta diversity (Fig. 2B) was significantly different between female and male gonads (P = 0.0006), male intestine (MI) and FG (P = 0.0093), and MG and FI (P = 0.0041). When comparing organs, Veillonella was differentially abundant for DESeq2 and ANCOM-BC (p < 0.0001), corncob (P = 0.0008), and metagenomeSeq (P = 0.0118), and Sarcina was differentially abundant across four methods (P < 0.0001). Finally, the microbiota of all individual Parascaris spp. specimens were compared to establish shared microbiota between groups. Conclusions Overall, this study provided important information regarding the Parascaris spp. microbiota and provides a first step towards determining whether the microbiota may be a viable target for future parasite control options. Graphical abstract ![]()
Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13071-022-05533-y.
Collapse
|
5
|
Anthelmintic resistance in equine nematodes: Current status and emerging trends. Int J Parasitol Drugs Drug Resist 2022; 20:76-88. [PMID: 36342004 PMCID: PMC9630620 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpddr.2022.10.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2022] [Revised: 10/19/2022] [Accepted: 10/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Anthelmintic resistance is reported in equine nematodes with increasing frequency in recent years, and no new anthelmintic classes have been introduced during the past 40 years. This manuscript reviews published literature describing anthelmintic resistance in cyathostomins, Parascaris spp., and Oxyuris equi with special emphasis on larvicidal efficacy against encysted cyathostomin larvae and strongylid egg reappearance periods (ERP). Resistance to benzimidazoles and pyrimidines is highly prevalent in cyathostomin populations around the world, and macrocyclic lactone resistance has been documented in cyathostomins in recent years as well. Two recent studies have documented resistance to the larvicidal regimen of fenbendazole, whereas the larvicidal efficacy of moxidectin is variable, but with no evidence of a reduction from historic levels. In the 1990s, ERP estimates were 8-10 and 12-16 weeks for ivermectin and moxidectin, respectively, while several studies published after year 2000 found ERPs to be 5 weeks for both compounds. This is a clear change in anthelmintic performance, but it remains unclear if this is due to development of anthelmintic resistance or selection for other biological traits leading to a quicker resumption of strongylid egg shedding following anthelmintic treatment. Macrocyclic lactone resistance is common in Parascaris spp. around the world, but recent reports suggests that resistance to the two other classes should be monitored as well. Finally, O. equi has been reported resistant to ivermectin and moxidectin in countries representing four continents. In conclusion, multi-drug resistance is becoming the norm in managed cyathostomin populations around the world, and a similar pattern may be emerging in Parascaris spp. More work is required to understand the mechanisms behind the shortened ERPs, and researchers and veterinarians around the world are encouraged to routinely monitor anthelmintic efficacy against equine nematodes.
Collapse
|
6
|
The equine ascarids: resuscitating historic model organisms for modern purposes. Parasitol Res 2022; 121:2775-2791. [PMID: 35986167 PMCID: PMC9391215 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-022-07627-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2022] [Accepted: 08/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
The equine ascarids, Parascaris spp., are important nematode parasites of juvenile horses and were historically model organisms in the field of cell biology, leading to many important discoveries, and are used for the study of chromatin diminution. In veterinary parasitology, Parascaris spp. are important not only because they can cause clinical disease in young horses but also because they are the only ascarid parasites to have developed widespread anthelmintic resistance. Despite this, much of the general biology and mechanisms of anthelmintic resistance are poorly understood. This review condenses known basic biological information and knowledge on the mechanisms of anthelmintic resistance in Parascaris spp., highlighting the importance of foundational research programs. Although two variants of this parasite were recognized based on the number of chromosomes in the 1870s and suggested to be two species in 1890, one of these, P. univalens, appears to have been largely forgotten in the veterinary scientific literature over the past 100 years. We describe how this omission has had a century-long effect on nomenclature and data analysis in the field, highlighting the importance of proper specimen identification in public repositories. A summary of important basic biology, including life cycle, in vitro maintenance, and immunology, is given, and areas of future research for the improvement of knowledge and development of new systems are given. Finally, the limited knowledge regarding anthelmintic resistance in Parascaris spp. is summarized, along with caution regarding assumptions that resistance mechanisms can be applied across clades.
Collapse
|
7
|
von Samson-Himmelstjerna G, Janssen IJI, Ramünke S, Goday C, Borges FDA, Koudela B, Niedźwiedź A, Tomczuk K, Studzińska MB, Kornas S, Krücken J. Very low intraspecific sequence variation in selected nuclear and mitochondrial Parascaris univalens genes. INFECTION GENETICS AND EVOLUTION 2021; 95:105035. [PMID: 34384934 DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2021.105035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2021] [Revised: 08/04/2021] [Accepted: 08/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Equines were over decades considered to be infected by two morphologically virtually indistinguishable ascarid species, Parascaris univalens and Parascaris equorum. Reliable species discrimination is only possible using enzyme isoelectric focussing and karyotyping with P. univalens having one and P. equorum two chromosome pairs. However, presumably the complexity of both methods prevented their routine use in nearly all previous studies about prevalence and drug resistance of Parascaris spp. These have barely been performed on the species level although most studies stated presence of one or the other species. Recently, only P. univalens has been identified by karyotyping and the last published study identifying P. equorum dates back to 1989. In order to improve species-specific detection, molecular markers are required. Here, partial 12S rRNA, cytochrome oxidase I (COI) and complete internal transcribed spacer (ITS)-1 and - 2 sequences were obtained from 24 karyotyped Parascaris specimens from Poland and 6 German specimens (not karyotyped) and used in phylogenetic analyses with orthologous sequences from GenBank. All karyotyped specimens were identified as P. univalens. In the phylogenetic analysis, they formed very homogenous clusters for all target genes and in a multi-locus analysis. Within this cluster, almost all sequences from GenBank were also included, no matter if they had been assigned to P. univalens or P. equorum. However, a small number of P. univalens ITS and COI sequences originating from donkeys from a single farm in China formed a highly supported sister cluster suggesting that they might represent another Parascaris genotype or species. Our data also strongly suggest that nearly all ITS and COI sequences previously deposited in GenBank and assigned to P. equorum actually represent P. univalens. The fact that significantly different sequences can be found in Parascaris spp. suggests that PCR-based species diagnosis will be possible once molecular markers have been identified for P. equorum from karyotyped specimens.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - I Jana I Janssen
- Institute for Parasitology and Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Freie Universität Berlin, Germany
| | - Sabrina Ramünke
- Institute for Parasitology and Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Freie Universität Berlin, Germany
| | - Clara Goday
- Departamento de Biología Celular y Molecular, Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas (CIB), Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Madrid, Spain
| | - Fernando de A Borges
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, Federal University of Mato Grosso do Sul, Campo Grande, Brazil
| | - Bretislav Koudela
- Central European Institute of Technology (CEITEC), University of Veterinary and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Palackého tř. 1946/1, Brno 612 42, Czech Republic; Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Veterinary and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Artur Niedźwiedź
- Department of Internal Medicine and Clinic for Horses, Dogs and Cats, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Wroclaw University of Environmental and Life Sciences, Wroclaw, Poland
| | - Krzysztof Tomczuk
- Sub-Department of Parasitology and Invasive Diseases, Veterinary Faculty, University of Life Sciences, Lublin, Poland
| | - Maria Bernadeta Studzińska
- Sub-Department of Parasitology and Invasive Diseases, Veterinary Faculty, University of Life Sciences, Lublin, Poland
| | - Slawomir Kornas
- Department of Zoology and Animal Welfare, Faculty of Animal Sciences, University of Agriculture, Al. Mickiewicza 24/28, Kraków, Poland
| | - Jürgen Krücken
- Institute for Parasitology and Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Freie Universität Berlin, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Scala A, Tamponi C, Sanna G, Predieri G, Meloni L, Knoll S, Sedda G, Dessì G, Cappai MG, Varcasia A. Parascaris spp. eggs in horses of Italy: a large-scale epidemiological analysis of the egg excretion and conditioning factors. Parasit Vectors 2021; 14:246. [PMID: 33964977 PMCID: PMC8106216 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-021-04747-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/01/2021] [Accepted: 04/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Equine ascariosis, caused by Parascaris spp., is a worldwide endoparasitic disease affecting young horses in particular. Despite the great number of horses reared in Italy, large-scale epidemiological surveys dealing with ascariosis prevalence in the country are not reported in the current literature. For this reason, the present survey aims to describe, for the first time, the spread and infestation of Parascaris spp. in a large population of Italian horses (6896 animals) using faecal egg counts, and further to identify risk factors associated with ascarid egg shedding. Methods Individual rectal faecal samples collected during routine veterinary examinations were used and Parascaris spp. prevalence was tested against the animal’s age, sex, housing conditions, geographic provenance as well as the respective sampling season. Results Among the examined stables, 35.8% showed at least one horse to be positive for Parascaris spp. eggs and an overall prevalence of 6.3% was found. Ascariosis rates tended to decrease significantly with age and, proportionally, 80.0% of the recorded Parascaris spp. eggs were found in 0.7% of the examined animals. Statistically significant differences among prevalence rates were found between the different geographic areas of provenance and prevalence was found to be higher in horses reared outdoors compared to those raised indoors. Analysis of data based on sex and season did not show any significant differences. Despite the lower prevalence found compared to other European countries, ascariosis was concluded to represent a significant health challenge for horses reared in Italy, especially foals. Age (foals and yearlings) and outdoor rearing were identified to be significant risk factors for Parascaris spp. egg shedding. Furthermore, the relevance of the infected horses over 6 years of age should not be underestimated as these represent a significant source of contamination for younger animals. Conclusions The development of improved treatment protocols based on regular faecal examination combined with follow-up assessment of the efficacy of integrated action plans would prove beneficial in regard to animal health and anthelmintic resistance reduction in the field. Graphic Abstract
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Antonio Scala
- Dipartimento di Medicina Veterinaria, Università di Sassari, Sassari, Italy
| | - Claudia Tamponi
- Dipartimento di Medicina Veterinaria, Università di Sassari, Sassari, Italy
| | - Giuliana Sanna
- Dipartimento di Medicina Veterinaria, Università di Sassari, Sassari, Italy
| | | | - Luisa Meloni
- Dipartimento di Medicina Veterinaria, Università di Sassari, Sassari, Italy
| | - Stephane Knoll
- Dipartimento di Medicina Veterinaria, Università di Sassari, Sassari, Italy
| | - Giampietro Sedda
- Dipartimento di Medicina Veterinaria, Università di Sassari, Sassari, Italy
| | - Giorgia Dessì
- Dipartimento di Medicina Veterinaria, Università di Sassari, Sassari, Italy
| | | | - Antonio Varcasia
- Dipartimento di Medicina Veterinaria, Università di Sassari, Sassari, Italy.
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Studzińska MB, Sallé G, Roczeń-Karczmarz M, Szczepaniak K, Demkowska-Kutrzepa M, Tomczuk K. A survey of ivermectin resistance in Parascaris species infected foals in south-eastern Poland. Acta Vet Scand 2020; 62:28. [PMID: 32503589 PMCID: PMC7275302 DOI: 10.1186/s13028-020-00526-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2019] [Accepted: 05/29/2020] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Parascaris spp. are major gastro-intestinal nematodes that infect foals and can lead to respiratory symptoms, poor growth, and in some cases obstruction of the small intestine and death. Ivermectin resistance has been reported for Parascaris spp. in many countries. In Poland, the knowledge of the level of resistance against ivermectin in Parascaris spp. is limited. The aim of this study was to examine the efficacy of ivermectin against Parascaris spp. in foals from south-eastern Poland. Foals (n = 225 = reared in 7 stud farms) were treated orally with ivermectin paste. Faecal samples were collected from the rectum of each foal or from the environment straight after defaecation on 1 day prior and 2 weeks after deworming. A faecal egg count (FEC) was performed using the McMaster method with a minimum detection limit of 50 eggs/g. FEC reduction (FECR) was calculated using the Faecal Egg Count Reduction Test. The statistical analysis was limited to foals excreting more than 150 eggs/g before treatment and to stud farms with at least 6 foals excreting at or above this level. Confidence intervals were determined by 1000 bootstraps at farm level and the contribution of sex and age to FECR was quantified using a generalized equation estimation procedure. Parascaris spp. eggs were found in 40% of the foals. Following ivermectin treatment, Parascaris spp. eggs were identified in 28.4% of the foals. The mean estimated FECR ranged from 44% to 97% and average efficacy was 49.3%. FECR was more pronounced in older foals (P-values = 0. 003). The FECR was more pronounced in males than in females (P value = 0.028). This study is the first to indicate a reduced efficacy of ivermectin against Parascaris spp. in foals in Poland.
Collapse
|
10
|
Wilkes EJA, Heller J, Raidal SL, Woodgate RG, Hughes KJ. A questionnaire study of parasite control in Thoroughbred and Standardbred horses in Australia. Equine Vet J 2020; 52:547-555. [PMID: 31725925 DOI: 10.1111/evj.13207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2019] [Revised: 09/17/2019] [Accepted: 11/08/2019] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Information regarding parasite control practices currently used on Thoroughbred and Standardbred studs in Australia is lacking. Anthelmintic resistance (AR) is a global problem which has implications for equine health and welfare. OBJECTIVES To identify parasite control practices currently used on horse studs in Australia and investigate the frequency of use of management factors that have been associated with the likelihood of promoting or delaying AR. STUDY DESIGN Questionnaire study of equine parasite control on Thoroughbred and Standardbred studs in Australia. METHODS An online questionnaire was emailed to 300 studs in Australia. Information obtained included property details, grazing management, anthelmintic use, non-chemotherapeutic parasite control practices, use of faecal egg counts (FECs) and perceptions of AR. RESULTS Seventy-five completed questionnaires were received (25% response rate). Macrocyclic lactones (MLs) were the most commonly administered anthelmintics in mares and foals and less than 5% of respondents used targeted treatment regimens. The implementation of pasture hygiene practices was variable. The majority of respondents (97%) considered AR to be important; however, few respondents were aware of the use of FEC reduction tests for monitoring of drug efficacy. MAIN LIMITATIONS The potential for nonresponse bias was the main limitation of this study. CONCLUSIONS Parasite control strategies on Australian stud farms remain over-reliant on anthelmintic use. The frequent use of MLs is of concern for the increased selection pressure for AR. There is a lack of awareness of the importance of non-chemotherapeutic strategies in integrated approaches to parasite control aimed at delaying the development of AR. This study highlights the need for greater veterinary involvement in the implementation of more sustainable parasite control practices with greater emphasis placed on surveillance through FEC testing.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Edwina J A Wilkes
- School of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, Charles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Jane Heller
- School of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, Charles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Sharanne L Raidal
- School of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, Charles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Robert G Woodgate
- School of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, Charles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Kristopher J Hughes
- School of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, Charles Sturt University, Wagga Wagga, New South Wales, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Anthelmintic resistance and novel control options in equine gastrointestinal nematodes. Parasitology 2018; 146:425-437. [DOI: 10.1017/s0031182018001786] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
AbstractControl of equine nematodes has relied on benzimidazoles (BZs), tetrahydropyrimidines and macrocyclic lactones. The intensive use of anthelmintics has led to the development of anthelmintic resistance (AR) in equine cyathostomins and Parascaris equorum. Field studies indicate that BZ and pyrantel resistance is widespread in cyathostomins and there are also increasing reports of resistance to macrocyclic lactones in cyathostomins and P. equorum. The unavailability of reliable laboratory-based techniques for detecting resistance further augments the problem of nematode control in horses. The only reliable test used in horses is the fecal egg count reduction test; therefore, more focus should be given to develop and validate improved methodologies for diagnosing AR at an early stage, as well as determining the mechanisms involved in resistance development. Therefore, equine industry and researchers should devise and implement new strategies for equine worm control, such as the use of bioactive pastures or novel feed additives, and control should increasingly incorporate alternative and evidence-based parasite control strategies to limit the development of AR. This review describes the history and prevalence of AR in equine nematodes, along with recent advances in developing resistance diagnostic tests and worm control strategies in horses, as well as giving some perspective on recent research into novel control strategies.
Collapse
|
12
|
Alanazi AD, Mukbel RM, Alyousif MS, AlShehri ZS, Alanazi IO, Al-Mohammed HI. A field study on the anthelmintic resistance of Parascaris spp. in Arab foals in the Riyadh region, Saudi Arabia. Vet Q 2017; 37:200-205. [DOI: 10.1080/01652176.2017.1334981] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Abdullah D. Alanazi
- Department of Biological Science, Faculty of Science and Humanities, Shaqra University, Ad-Dawadimi, Saudi Arabia
| | - Rami M. Mukbel
- Department of Basic Veterinary Medical Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Jordan University of Science and Technology, Irbid, Jordan
| | - Mohamed S. Alyousif
- Department of Zoology, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Zafer S. AlShehri
- Department of Biological Science, Faculty of Science and Humanities, Shaqra University, Ad-Dawadimi, Saudi Arabia
| | - Ibrahim O. Alanazi
- The National Centre for Genomic Technology, King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Hamdan I. Al-Mohammed
- Department of Microbiology and Medical Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, King Faisal University, Al Ahsa, Saudi Arabia
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
A survey of macrocyclic lactone efficacy in Australian cyathostomin populations. VETERINARY PARASITOLOGY- REGIONAL STUDIES AND REPORTS 2017; 8:127-132. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vprsr.2017.03.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2016] [Revised: 12/16/2016] [Accepted: 03/20/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
|
14
|
Wilkes EJA, McConaghy FF, Thompson RL, Dawson K, Sangster NC, Hughes KJ. Efficacy of a morantel-abamectin combination for the treatment of resistant ascarids in foals. Aust Vet J 2017; 95:85-88. [DOI: 10.1111/avj.12559] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2016] [Revised: 06/15/2016] [Accepted: 06/15/2016] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- EJA Wilkes
- School of Animal and Veterinary Sciences; Charles Sturt University; Wagga Wagga New South Wales Australia
| | - FF McConaghy
- Ceva Animal Health Pty Ltd; Glenorie NSW Australia
| | - RL Thompson
- School of Animal and Veterinary Sciences; Charles Sturt University; Wagga Wagga New South Wales Australia
| | - K Dawson
- Dawbuts Pty Ltd; Camden NSW Australia
| | - NC Sangster
- School of Animal and Veterinary Sciences; Charles Sturt University; Wagga Wagga New South Wales Australia
| | - KJ Hughes
- School of Animal and Veterinary Sciences; Charles Sturt University; Wagga Wagga New South Wales Australia
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Armstrong S, Woodgate R, Gough S, Heller J, Sangster N, Hughes K. The efficacy of ivermectin, pyrantel and fenbendazole against Parascaris equorum infection in foals on farms in Australia. Vet Parasitol 2014; 205:575-80. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2014.08.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2014] [Revised: 08/23/2014] [Accepted: 08/28/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
|
16
|
Kaplan RM, West EM, Norat-Collazo LM, Vargas J. A combination treatment strategy using pyrantel pamoate and oxibendazole demonstrates additive effects for controlling equine cyathostomins. EQUINE VET EDUC 2014. [DOI: 10.1111/eve.12201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- R. M. Kaplan
- Department of Infectious Diseases; College of Veterinary Medicine; University of Georgia; Athens Georgia USA
| | - E. M. West
- Department of Infectious Diseases; College of Veterinary Medicine; University of Georgia; Athens Georgia USA
| | - L. M. Norat-Collazo
- Department of Infectious Diseases; College of Veterinary Medicine; University of Georgia; Athens Georgia USA
| | - J. Vargas
- Department of Infectious Diseases; College of Veterinary Medicine; University of Georgia; Athens Georgia USA
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Anthelmintic resistance in important parasites of horses: Does it really matter? Vet Parasitol 2014; 201:1-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2014.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 135] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2013] [Revised: 01/03/2014] [Accepted: 01/08/2014] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
|
18
|
de Carvalho LM, Braga FR, Domingues RR, Araujo JM, Lelis RT, de Paula AT, da Silveira WF, de Araújo JV. Interaction of the nematophagous fungusPochonia chlamydosporiaandParascaris equorumeggs in different culture media. J Basic Microbiol 2013; 54 Suppl 1:S109-14. [DOI: 10.1002/jobm.201300586] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2013] [Accepted: 10/03/2013] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Fabio Ribeiro Braga
- Department of Veterinary; Federal University of Viçosa; Viçosa Minas Gerais Brazil
- Vila Velha University; Vila Velha Espírito Santo Brazil
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
19
|
Tydén E, Morrison D, Engström A, Nielsen M, Eydal M, Höglund J. Population genetics of Parascaris equorum based on DNA fingerprinting. INFECTION GENETICS AND EVOLUTION 2013; 13:236-41. [DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2012.09.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2012] [Revised: 09/27/2012] [Accepted: 09/28/2012] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
|
20
|
Geurden T, Betsch JM, Maillard K, Vanimisetti B, D'Espois M, Besognet B. Determination of anthelmintic efficacy against equine cyathostomins andParascaris equorumin France. EQUINE VET EDUC 2012. [DOI: 10.1111/j.2042-3292.2012.00454.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - J.-M. Betsch
- Clinique Vétérinaire Equine de Méheudin; Ecouché; France
| | - K. Maillard
- Laboratoire Départemental Frank Duncombe; St Contest; France
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
21
|
Strongylus vulgaris associated with usage of selective therapy on Danish horse farms—Is it reemerging? Vet Parasitol 2012; 189:260-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2012.04.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2012] [Revised: 04/19/2012] [Accepted: 04/29/2012] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
|
22
|
Laugier C, Sevin C, Ménard S, Maillard K. Prevalence of Parascaris equorum infection in foals on French stud farms and first report of ivermectin-resistant P. equorum populations in France. Vet Parasitol 2012; 188:185-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2012.02.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2011] [Revised: 02/17/2012] [Accepted: 02/28/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
|
23
|
Kaplan RM, Vidyashankar AN. An inconvenient truth: global worming and anthelmintic resistance. Vet Parasitol 2011; 186:70-8. [PMID: 22154968 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2011.11.048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 516] [Impact Index Per Article: 39.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Over the past 10-15 years, we have witnessed a rapid increase in both the prevalence and magnitude of anthelmintic resistance, and this increase appears to be a worldwide phenomenon. Reports of anthelmintic resistance to multiple drugs in individual parasite species, and in multiple parasite species across virtually all livestock hosts, are increasingly common. In addition, since the introduction of ivermectin in 1981, no novel anthelmintic classes were developed and introduced for use in livestock until recently with the launch of monepantel in New Zealand. Thus, livestock producers are often left with few options for effective treatment against many important parasite species. While new anthelmintic classes with novel mechanisms of action could potentially solve this problem, new drugs are extremely expensive to develop, and can be expected to be more expensive than older drugs. Thus, it seems clear that the "Global Worming" approach that has taken hold over the past 40-50 years must change, and livestock producers must develop a new vision for parasite control and sustainability of production. Furthermore, parasitologists must improve methods for study design and data analysis that are used for diagnosing anthelmintic resistance, especially for the fecal egg count reduction test (FECRT). Currently, standards for diagnosis of anthelmintic resistance using FECRT exist only for sheep. Lack of standards in horses and cattle and arbitrarily defined cutoffs for defining resistance, combined with inadequate analysis of the data, mean that errors in assigning resistance status are common. Similarly, the lack of standards makes it difficult to compare data among different studies. This problem needs to be addressed, because as new drugs are introduced now and in the future, the lack of alternative treatments will make early and accurate diagnosis of anthelmintic resistance increasingly important.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ray M Kaplan
- Department of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA.
| | | |
Collapse
|
24
|
Further evaluation in field tests of the activity of three anthelmintics (fenbendazole, oxibendazole, and pyrantel pamoate) against the ascarid Parascaris equorum in horse foals on eight farms in Central Kentucky (2009–2010). Parasitol Res 2011; 109:1193-7. [DOI: 10.1007/s00436-011-2379-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2011] [Accepted: 04/04/2011] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
|
25
|
Determination of ivermectin efficacy against cyathostomins and Parascaris equorum on horse farms using selective therapy. Vet J 2011; 188:44-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2010.03.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2010] [Revised: 02/19/2010] [Accepted: 03/05/2010] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
|
26
|
Veronesi F, Fioretti DP, Genchi C. Are macrocyclic lactones useful drugs for the treatment of Parascaris equorum infections in foals? Vet Parasitol 2010; 172:164-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2010.04.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2009] [Revised: 03/30/2010] [Accepted: 04/15/2010] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
|
27
|
Kaplan RM, Nielsen MK. An evidence-based approach to equine parasite control: It ain't the 60s anymore. EQUINE VET EDUC 2010. [DOI: 10.1111/j.2042-3292.2010.00084.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 127] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
|
28
|
Reinemeyer CR, Prado JC, Nichols EC, Marchiondo AA. Efficacy of pyrantel pamoate against a macrocyclic lactone-resistant isolate of Parascaris equorum in horses. Vet Parasitol 2010; 171:111-5. [PMID: 20307936 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2010.02.041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2009] [Revised: 02/23/2010] [Accepted: 02/24/2010] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
The expanding prevalence of Parascaris equorum populations that are resistant to macrocyclic lactone (ML) anthelmintics makes it desirable to identify dewormers which remain effective. The objective was to evaluate the efficacy of pyrantel pamoate in 14 suckling foals that had been infected orally with approximately 600 larvated eggs of a P. equorum isolate selected for ML resistance (ML-R). Seventy days after inoculation, foals were weaned, housed individually, and fecal samples were examined frequently to detect the onset of patency. Between 73 and 80 days post-inoculation, all 14 foals developed P. equorum egg counts>or=150 eggs per gram (EPG). An initial cohort of eight foals was treated orally with ivermectin paste (200 microg/kg) 84-91 days post-inoculation. Egg counts were reduced by only 47% at 2 weeks after ivermectin treatment, confirming the ML-R status of the isolate. A second cohort of six foals was not treated with ivermectin. Within each cohort, eligible foals were allocated randomly to treated (pyrantel pamoate; n=7) or untreated control (n=7) groups. Treated foals were dosed orally on Day 0 with a paste formulation of pyrantel pamoate at 13.2mg/kg. Mean ascarid egg counts of treated foals were reduced by 96.0% and 98.8% at 1 and 2 weeks post-treatment, respectively. On Day 14, foals were euthanatized and specimens of P. equorum were recovered from the gut contents, preserved in 10% formalin, and counted. Mean numbers of P. equorum adults recovered postmortem were significantly lower (P=0.0031) in foals treated with pyrantel pamoate (X=1.7; range 0-16) compared to control foals (X=63.0; range 0-320). A paste formulation of pyrantel pamoate, at a dosage of 13.2 mg/kg, was 97.3% effective against a ML-R isolate of P. equorum.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Craig R Reinemeyer
- East Tennessee Clinical Research, Inc., 80 Copper Ridge Farm Road, Rockwood, TN 37854, United States.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
29
|
Nielsen MK. Restrictions of anthelmintic usage: perspectives and potential consequences. Parasit Vectors 2009; 2 Suppl 2:S7. [PMID: 19778468 PMCID: PMC2751843 DOI: 10.1186/1756-3305-2-s2-s7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Given the increasing levels of anthelmintic resistance in equine parasites, parasitologists now recommend traditional treatment approaches to be abandoned and replaced by more sustainable strategies. It is of crucial importance to facilitate veterinary involvement to ensure that treatment decisions are based on parasitic knowledge. Despite recommendations given for the past two decades, strategies based on the selective therapy principle have not yet been implemented on a larger scale in equine establishments. In contrast, treatment regimens appear to be derived from recommendations originally given in 1966. The province of Quebec in Canada, and an increasing number of European countries, have implemented prescription-only restrictions on anthelmintic drugs. Denmark introduced this legislation ten years ago, and some evidence has been generated describing potential consequences. It is without dispute that Danish veterinarians are now deeply involved with parasite management in equine establishments. However, little is known about the impact on levels of anthelmintic resistance and the risk of parasitic disease under these circumstances. In addition, the legislation makes huge demands on diagnosis and parasite surveillance. No data have been published evaluating fecal egg count techniques and larval culture methods as clinical diagnostic tools, and very little is known about potential correlations with actual worm burdens. This article provides a general review of anthelmintic strategies currently used in equine establishments and outlines the recommendations now given for parasite control. Preliminary experience with prescription-only restrictions in Denmark is presented and current research needs to further evaluate this approach are discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Martin K Nielsen
- Department of Large Animal Sciences, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Denmark.
| |
Collapse
|
30
|
Abstract
Since 2002, macrocyclic lactone resistance has been reported in populations of Parascaris equorum from several countries. It is apparent that macrocyclic lactone resistance developed in response to exclusive and/or excessively frequent use of ivermectin or moxidectin in foals during the first year of life. The development of anthelmintic resistance was virtually inevitable, given certain biological features of Parascaris and unique pharmacologic characteristics of the macrocyclic lactones. Practitioners can utilize the Fecal Egg Count Reduction Test to detect anthelmintic resistance in Parascaris, and the same technique can be applied regularly to confirm the continued efficacy of those drugs currently in use. In the face of macrocyclic lactone resistance, piperazine or anthelmintics of the benzimidazole or pyrimidine classes can be used to control ascarid infections, but Parascaris populations that are concurrently resistant to macrocyclic lactones and pyrimidine drugs have been reported recently from Texas and Kentucky. Compared to traditional practices, future recommendations for ascarid control should feature: 1) use of only those anthelmintics known to be effective against indigenous populations, 2) initiation of anthelmintic treatment no earlier than 60 days of age, and 3) repetition of treatments at the longest intervals which prevent serious environmental contamination with Parascaris eggs. In the interest of decreasing selection pressure for anthelmintic resistance, horse owners and veterinarians must become more tolerant of the passage of modest numbers of ascarid eggs by some foals. Anthelmintic resistance is only one of several potential responses to genetic selection. Although still only theoretical, changes in the immunogenicity of ascarid isolates or reduction of their prepatent or egg reappearance periods could pose far greater challenges to effective control than resistance to a single class of anthelmintics.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Craig R Reinemeyer
- East Tennessee Clinical Research, Inc, 80 Copper Ridge Farm Road, Rockwood, TN 37854 USA.
| |
Collapse
|
31
|
Cobb R, Boeckh A. Moxidectin: a review of chemistry, pharmacokinetics and use in horses. Parasit Vectors 2009; 2 Suppl 2:S5. [PMID: 19778466 PMCID: PMC2751841 DOI: 10.1186/1756-3305-2-s2-s5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
This article reviews the current knowledge of the use of moxidectin (MOX) in horses, including its mode of action, pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties, efficacy, safety and resistance profile.Moxidectin is a second generation macrocyclic lactone (ML) with potent endectocide activity. It is used for parasite control in horses in an oral gel formulation. The principal mode of action of MOX and of other MLs is binding to gamma-aminobutyric (GABA) and glutamate-gated chloride channels. Moxidectin is different from other MLs in that it is a poor substrate for P-glycoproteins (P-gps) and therefore less susceptible to elimination from parasite cells through this mechanism. Due to its unique physicochemical and pharmacokinetic characteristics, MOX provides broad distribution into tissues, long half-life, significant residual antiparasitic activity, and high efficacy against encysted cyathostomin larvae. These characteristics allow for high efficacy and longer treatment interval against all important nematodes, when compared to other equine anthelmintics. A combination of MOX with praziquantel provides expanded spectrum of activity by adding activity against cestodes. Appropriate use of MOX allows for the development of strategic anthelmintic programmes that are different from those with conventional anthelmintics. Fewer treatments are required over a period of time, and therefore impose less frequent selection pressure for resistance.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rami Cobb
- Fort Dodge Animal Health, Pharmaceutical Research and Development, Princeton, NJ, USA.
| | | |
Collapse
|