Molecular Epidemiology and Phylogeny of Theileria ovis and Theileria lestoquardi in Sheep and Goats from Southern Punjab, Pakistan

Background: Theileria spp. are responsible for ovine and caprine theileriosis, leading to significant morbidity and mortality in small ruminants. The present study aims to investigate Theileria spp. infections in small ruminants from Southern Punjab in Pakistan, and genetic characterize revealed Theileria spp. isolates. Methods: A total of 93 sheep and 107 goats were sampled between May and August 2022. Blood smears were examined microscopically, and PCR amplification targeting the 18S rRNA gene was performed to detect Theileria spp. Additionally, specific PCR assays targeting 18S rRNA and ms1 partial sequences were used to identify Theileria ovis and T. lestoquardi, respectively.  Results: The prevalence of Theileria spp. was significantly higher using PCR (13.5%) compared to microscopic screening (5%). Sheep showed a higher prevalence rate (19.4%) compared to goats (8.4%) (p = 0.024). Young sheep aged ≤ 1 year were more commonly infected with Theileria spp. (41%) compared to older sheep (p = 0.006). The prevalence of Theileria spp. was higher in sheep-only herds (37.3%) compared to goat-only herds (18%) or mixed-species herds (8.1%) (p = 0.015). The prevalence rates of T. ovis and T. lestoquardi were 9% and 2.5%, respectively, with four animals (2 goats and 2 sheep) showing co-infection. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that our T. ovis 18S rRNA sequence clustered with previously reported sequences from sheep in Turkey, China, Spain, and goats in Tanzania. The obtained T. lestoquardi ms1 partial sequence formed a distinct cluster from other T. lestoquardi isolates in Pakistan and neighboring countries.  Conclusion: Theileria spp. co-circulation in Pakistani small ruminants, particularly the presence of T. ovis and T. lestoquardi, highlights the need for attention from animal health decision-makers due to their financial and health impacts.

Linalool-zinc oxide nanocomposite controls Toxoplasma gondii infection through inhibiting inflammation, oxidative stress, and pathogenicity

The present in vitro and in vivo study aimed to fabricate and characterize linalool-zinc oxide nanoparticles (Lin-ZNP) and evaluate their effectiveness against Toxoplasma gondii infection in terms of inflammation, oxidative stress, and pathogenicity. Lin-ZNP was synthesized using an ethanolic solution of polyvinyl alcohol. The anti-Toxoplasma and cytotoxicity activities of Lin-ZNP were investigated, along with its effects on nitric oxide (NO) production, caspase-3 activity, and pro-inflammatory genes. After treating T. gondii-infected mice with Lin-ZNP for 14 days, the number and size of tissue cysts, antioxidant potential, pro-inflammatory cytokines, and T. gondii pathogenicity-related genes were evaluated by real-time polymerase chain reaction and Western blot analysis. The Lin-ZNP composite showed a reduced tendency with an average size of 105 nm. Lin-ZNP significantly reduced the viability of tachyzoites. The obtained selectivity index higher than 10, indicating high specificity for parasites with low cytotoxicity to normal cells. The Lin-ZNP significantly (p < 0.05) increased the production of NO, caspase-3 activity, and the expression levels of pro-inflammatory genes. Lin-ZNP significantly (p < 0.001) decreased the size and number of tissue cysts and caused a significant reduction in the level of malondialdehyde and a considerable increase (p < 0.001) in antioxidant enzymes and their expression genes. Lin-ZNP significantly downregulated both mRNA and protein expression of the inflammation-related markers associated with the TLRs/NF-κB pathway. The expression levels of the T. gondii pathogenicity-related genes were significantly downregulated (p < 0.05). The recent survey indicated that Lin-ZNP manages T. gondii infection by its antioxidant activity and inhibiting the TLRs/NF-κB pathway without toxicity in mice.

High Efficacy of Green Synthesized Silver Nanoparticles for Treatment of Toxoplasma Gondii Infection Through Their Immunomodulatory, Anti-Inflammatory, and Antioxidant Potency

The present experimental survey designed to green synthesis, characterization, as well as in vitro and in vivo anti-Toxplasma gondii activity of silver nanoparticles (SLN) green synthesized by Lupinus arcticus extract. SLN were green synthesized based on the reducing by L. arcticus extract through the precipitation technique. In vitro lethal effects of SLN on T. gondii tachyzoites, infectivity rate, parasites inside of the human macrophage cells (THP-1 cells), nitric oxide (NO) triggering, and iNOS and interferon gamma (IFN-γ) expression genes were evaluated. In vivo, after establishment of toxoplasmosis in BALB/c mice via T. gondii ME49 strain, mice received SLN at 10 and 20 mg/kg/day alone and combined to pyrimethamine at 5 mg/kg for 14 days. SLN exhibited a spherical form with a size ranging from 25 to 90 nm. The 50% inhibitory concentration (IC50) value of SLN and pyrimethamine against tachyzoites was 29.1 and 25.7 µg/mL, respectively. While, the 50% cytotoxic concentration (CC50) value of SLN and pyrimethamine against THP-1 cells was 412.3 µg/mL and 269.5 µg/mL, respectively. SLN in combined with pyrimethamine obviously (p < 0.05) decreased the number and size of the T. gondii cysts in the infected mice. The level of NO, iNOS and IFN-γ genes was obviously (p < 0.001) upregulated. SLN obviously (p < 0.05) decreased the liver level of oxidative stress and increased the level of antioxidant factors. The findings displayed the promising beneficial effects of SLN mainly in combination with current synthetic drugs against latent T. gondii infection in mice. But we need more experiments to approve these findings, clarifying all possible mechanisms, and its efficiency in clinical phases.

Unveiling of the antileishmanial activities of Linalool loaded zinc oxide nanocomposite through its potent antioxidant and immunomodulatory effects

This study aimed to produce linalool loaded zinc oxide nanocomposite (LZNPs) and assess its in vitro and in vivo antileishmanial effects against Leishmania major. LZNPs was produced through the synthesis of an ethanolic solution containing polyvinyl alcohol. The average size of LZNPs was determined to be 105 nm. The findings indicated that LZNPs displayed significant (p < 0.01) antileishmanial effects on promastigotes and amastigotes. Following exposure of promastigotes to LZNPs, there was a notable rise in the percentage of early and late apoptotic cells from 9.0 to 57.2 %. The gene expression levels of iNOS, IFN-γ, and TNF-α in macrophages were upregulated in a dose-dependent approach following exposure to LZNPs. LZNPs alone and in conjunction with glucantime (Glu) resulted in a reduction in the diameter and parasite load of CL lesions in infected mice. Treatment of the CL-infected mice with LZNPs at 25 and 50 mg/kg mainly in combination with Glu-reduced the tissue level of malondialdehyde (MDA), increased both gene and protein expression of the antioxidant enzymes as well as raised the expression level of IFN-γ and IL-12 cytokines, whereas caused a significant reduction in the expression level of IL-4. The present study shows that LZNPs has potent antileishmanial effects and controls CL in a mice model through its antioxidant and immunomodulatory properties. Further investigation, especially in clinical trials, could explore the potential use of this nanocomposite in managing and treating CL.

Molecular prevalence of vector borne bacterial pathogens in the blood samples of wild rodent species trapped from Saudi Arabia

Order Rodentia is the most speciose among mammals and the members of this order are known to host more than 60 zoonotic diseases and rodents are a potential health threat to humans. This study was designed to report the molecular prevalence and phylogenetic evaluation of various blood borne bacterial pathogens (Anaplasma ovis, Anaplasma phagocytophilum, Anaplasma marginale and Bartonella spp.) in the blood samples of four wild rodent species [Meriones rex (N = 27), Acomys dimidiatus (N = 18), Myomys yemeni (N = 6) and Rattus rattus (N = 3)] that were trapped during August till October 2020 from Al Makhwah governorate in Saudi Arabia. Results revealed by 9/54 (16.6%) rodents amplified Msp4 gene and 2/54 (3.7%) rodents amplified rpoB gene of Anaplasma ovis and Bartonella spp. respectively. Anaplasma phagocytophilum and Anaplasma marginale were not detected among enrolled rodent species. Meriones rex was the most highly infected rodent species. DNA sequencing and BLAST analysis confirmed the presence of Anaplasma ovis and the Bartonella koehlerae in rodent blood samples. Phylogenetic analysis of both pathogens showed that Saudi isolates were clustered together and were closely related to isolates that were reported from worldwide countries. Risk factor analysis revealed that prevalence of both bacterial pathogens was not restricted to a particular rodent species or a rodent sex (P > 0.05). In conclusion, we are reporting for the very first time that Saudi rodents are infected with Anaplasma ovis and rodents can be infected with Bartonella koehlerae. Similar studies at large scale are recommended in all those areas of Saudi Arabia that are unexplored for the incidence and prevalence of bacterial pathogens among the rodents that are living near human dwellings in order to prevent bacterial infections in local people as well as in livestock.

Immunomodulatory, Antioxidant, and Anti-Inflammatory Activities of Green Synthesized Copper Nanoparticles for Treatment of Chronic Toxoplasma gondii Infection

BACKGROUND

Nowadays, interest in the use of nanotechnology for medical purposes is increasing. The current experimental investigation is planned for the green synthesis, characterization, and efficacy of copper nanoparticles (CLN) against chronic Toxoplasma gondii infection.

METHODS

Green synthesis of CNP was performed using the Lupinus arcticus extract via the precipitation method. The effects of CNP on tachyzoites, infectivity rate, parasites inside THP-1 cells, nitric oxide (NO) triggering, iNOS, and IFN-γ expression genes were evaluated. Following toxoplasmosis in BALB/c mice via the T. gondii ME49 strain, mice received CNP at 5 and 10 mg/kg/day alone and combined with pyrimethamine (PYM) at 5 mg/kg for two weeks. CNP's in vivo effects were evaluated by analyzing the load and size of cysts, oxidant/antioxidant enzymes, and bradyzoite surface antigen 1 (BAG1) expression gene levels.

RESULTS

CNP displayed a circular shape ranging from 10 to 85 nm. The IC50 value of CNP and PYM against tachyzoites was 37.2 and 25.7 µg/mL, respectively, whereas the CC50 value of CNP and pyrimethamine against THP-1 cells was 491.4 μg/mL and 269.5 μg/mL, respectively. The rate of infectivity and parasite load among THP-1 cells exposed to CNP was obviously reduced (p < 0.05). CNP at the doses of 5 and 10 mg/kg predominantly along with PYM evidently (p < 0.05) reduced the number and size of the T. gondii cysts in the infected mice. The levels of NO, iNOS, and IFN-γ genes were remarkably (p < 0.001) boosted compared with the cells without treatment. CNP at the doses of 10 and 20 mg/kg drastically (p < 0.05) reduced the oxidative stress markers in the infected mice, whereas CNP significantly elevated the level of antioxidant factors. CNP also revealed no toxicity in the liver and kidney at the tested doses in healthy mice.

CONCLUSIONS

Our experimental study reported the beneficial effects of CNP principally along with existing chemical drugs against latent toxoplasmosis in mice, whereas the possible action mechanisms of CNP are controlling oxidative stress, refining antioxidant enzymes, and increasing the production of immunomodulatory cytokines with no toxicity to the function of vital organs. But, additional trials are required to confirm these results, as well as to clarify the accurate mechanisms and their toxicity.

Acaricidal, larvacidal, and repellent activity of green synthesized silver nanoparticles against Hyalomma dromedarii

We aimed at determination of acaricidal, larvacidal, and repellent activities of green synthesized silver nanoparticles (SNP) against Hyalomma dromedarii as one of the most common ticks in camels. SNP were green synthesized by reducing Lupinus albus extract through the precipitation technique. The acaricidal, larvicidal, and repellent activity of SNP against H. dromedarii was studied through the adult immersion test (AIT), the larval packet test (LPT), the vertical movement behavior of tick's larvae method, anti-acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity, and oxidative enzyme activity. The green synthesized SNP displayed a spherical form with a size ranging from 25-90 nm; whereas the most distribution of particles size was reported at 50-65 nm. SNP dose-dependently (p<0.001) increased the mortality rate of H. dromedarii adult; whereas at 16 and 32 µg/mL completely killed the adult females. Treatment of exposure of H. dromedarii adult to SNP markedly (p<0.001) declined the mean number, weight, and hatchability of eggs. Treatment of H. dromedarii larvae with SNP reduced the viability rate of larvae with the LC50 and LC90 values of 3.1 and 6.9 µg/mL, respectively. Exposure of H. dromedarii larvae to SNP, especially at ½ LC50 and LC50, markedly (p<0.001) increased the oxidative stress and declined the level of antioxidant enzymes in H. dromedarii larvae; whereas, markedly suppressed the AChE activity of the larvae stage of H. dromedarii in comparison to the control group. These results showed that SNP green synthesized by L. albus extract had promising acaricidal, larvicidal and repellent activity against H. dromedarii adults and larvae as a dose-dependent response. SNP also considrably decreased the level of acetylcholinesterase and antioxidant activity and also provokes oxidative stress in H. dromedarii larvae. However, more investigation must be designed to clear the accurate mechanisms and the efficacy of SNP in practical use.

Effectiveness of neck stabilization and Contrology training in comparison to conventional therapy amongst individuals with text neck syndrome

OBJECTIVE

Cell phones are carried by 79% of people between 18 and 44 years of age for nearly the entire day. Smartphone users spend an average of three hours/per day on their devices, whereas heavy smartphone users spend 8-10 hours/per day on their devices. Text neck is a dangerous disorder that can accelerate the degeneration of the spine. This study aimed to investigate the efficacy of neck stabilization training vs. Contrology or Pilates training in individuals with Text Neck Syndrome.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Participants (n=75) with a history of recurrent neck pain in the previous four months, having moderate pain (at least 4/10 on the numeric pain rating scale, NPRS), and constantly using mobile phones (>4 hours/day) were randomly allocated to one of three groups: a control group (neck isometric training) and two intervention groups (neck stabilization training and Contrology). They were assessed for craniovertebral angle (CVA), NPRS, and neck disability index (NDI) at baseline and at 4 weeks post-intervention.

RESULTS

There was a significant difference in the CVA, NPRS, and NDI among individuals with Text Neck Syndrome following intervention as compared to the control. Both the neck stabilization and Contrology training increased CVA and reduced neck pain and neck disability in individuals with Text Neck Syndrome. The two intervention groups showed similar effects in all the clinical outcome measures, suggesting almost equivalent effectiveness in the individuals with Text Neck Syndrome.

CONCLUSIONS

Neck stabilization seems to work better than Contrology training when it comes to increasing the craniovertebral angle, reducing pain intensity, and making it easier for individuals with Text Neck Syndrome to move their necks.

Potent In Vitro and In Vivo Effects of Stachys lavandulifolia Methanolic Extract against Toxoplasma gondii Infection

The present study aimed to evaluate the in vitro, in vivo, and safety of Stachys lavandulifolia Vahl. methanolic extract (SLME) against acute toxoplasmosis caused by Toxoplasma gondii RH strain in mice.

METHODS

MTT (3-(4,5-Dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide) assay was used to evaluate the in vitro effect of the SLME on T. gondii tachyzoites. Totally, 72 male BALB/c mice (40 mice for in vivo evaluation of SLME and 32 mice for its toxicity effects on liver and kidney serum enzymes) were used for the present investigation. At first, 40 mice were orally pre-treated with the SLME at doses of 25, 50, and 75 mg/kg/day for two weeks. Mice were checked daily, and the rate of survival and the mean number of tachyzoites were recorded. Liver lipid peroxidation (LPO) and nitric oxide (NO) levels, the effects on kidney and liver function, as well as the expression level of the proinflammatory cytokines such as interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and interferon-γ (IFN-γ), were studied by the quantitative real-time PCR. Flow cytometry analysis was performed on the effects of SLME on the detection of apoptotic and necrotic cells in T. gondii tachyzoites.

RESULTS

The SLME at the concentrations 75 and 150 µg/mL completely killed the tachyzoites after 2 hr of incubation. SLME at 25, 50, and 75 mg/kg/day increased the survival rate of infected mice by the sixth, seventh, and eighth days, respectively. SLME also significantly (p < 0.05) decreased the LPO and NO levels and upregulated the IL-1β and IFN-γ mRNA gene expression levels, whereas no considerable change was observed in the serum level of kidney and liver enzymes. Flow cytometry analysis revealed the prompted early and late apoptosis after exposure to T. gondii tachyzoites with various concentrations of SLME.

CONCLUSION

We found the relevant in vitro anti-Toxoplasma effects of SLME against T. gondii. Moreover, the results confirmed the promising in vivo prophylactic effects of SLME. SLME provokes the innate immune system, induces apoptosis, modulates the proinflammatory cytokines, and inhibits hepatic injury in infected mice. With all these descriptions, further surveys are required to support these findings and elucidate this plant's possible mechanisms of action.

Antileishmanial effects, cellular mechanisms, and cytotoxicity of Elettaria cardamomum essential oil against Leishmania major infection

Leishmaniasis is an infectious disease with various clinical manifestations. We studied the therapeutic effects of Elettaria cardamomum essential oil (ECEO) against Leishmania major infection. In vitro effects of ECEO against L. major were examined by MTT (3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide) and macrophage assays. Nitric oxide (NO) production, infection inhibition in macrophages, and the apoptotic activity of ECEO in treated parasites were also measured. By calculating the 50% cytotoxic concentrations (CC50), we studied the cytotoxicity effects of ECEO on human macrophage cells (THP-1). The efficacy of ECEO for improving cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) lesions in mice (BALB/c) was determined by evaluating the size of lesions and the number of amastigotes before and after four weeks of treatment. The effects of ECEO on liver and kidney function in the tested mice were also evaluated. ECEO dose-dependently (p<0.001) inhibited the viability and the mean number of promastigotes and amastigote forms of L. tropica. Four weeks of treatment with ECEO at the doses of 2.5 and 5 mg/kg/ day significantly (p<0.001) improved the CL lesions and reduced the number of parasites in the infected mice. ECEO significantly increased NO production, apoptosis induction, and infection rate in parasites. The CC50 value for ECEO and MA was 303.4 µg/mL and 835.2 µg/mL, respectively. In the mice receiving ECEO at the doses of 2.5 and 5 mg/kg/day for 28 days, no significant change was reported between the serum level of liver enzymes and kidney factors when compared with the control group. ECEO displayed promising efficacy in parasite reduction in vitro and in the animal model. ECEO can thus be used as an alternative medicine to treat CL.

Relationship between KIR genotypes and HLA-ligands with SARS-CoV-2 infection in the Saudi population

Aim

To ascertain whether killer cell immunoglobulin-like receptors (KIR) genes polymorphisms and HLA-I ligands are associated with COVID-19 in Saudi Arabia.

Methods

Eighty-seven COVID-19 patients who tested positive for SARS-CoV-2 and one hundred and fourteen healthy controls were enrolled in this study for genotyping of the 16 KIR genes, HLA-C1 and -C2 allotypes and HLA-G 14-bp indels polymorphisms using the sequence specific primer polymerase chain reaction (SSP-PCR) method. KIR genotype frequency differences and combination KIR-HLA-C ligand were tested for significance.

Results

Framework genes KIR2DL4, KIR3DL2, KIR3DL3, and KIR3DP2 were present in all individuals. The frequencies of KIR2DL2 and KIR2D4 were higher in COVID-19 positive patients than in healthy individuals. The frequencies of the combination KIR2DL2-HLA-C2 was also significantly higher in patients affected by COVID-19 compared with healthy controls.

Conclusion

It was found that the inhibitory KIR2DL2 gene in isolation or combined with its HLA-C2 ligand could be associated with susceptibility to COVID-19 in the Saudi population.

Rhipicephalus linnaei (Audouin, 1826) recognised as the "tropical lineage" of the brown dog tick Rhipicephalus sanguineus sensu lato: Neotype designation, redescription, and establishment of morphological and molecular reference

We re-describe the adult stages of Rhipicephalus linnaei (Audouin, 1826), and characterise its diagnostic molecular traits. A male R. linnaei collected in Esna City, Luxor Governorate, Egypt is designated as the neotype. Rhipicephalus linnaei is re-established as a valid tick name and removed from the synonymy list of Rhipicephalus sanguineus (Latreille, 1806). Rhipicephalus linnaei is most similar to R. sanguineus and Rhipicephalus camicasi Morel, Mouchet & Rodhain, 1976 because they share similar elongated comma-like spiracula that are narrowly visible dorsally, and the dorsal prolongation is narrower than the width of the adjacent festoon. The male of R. camicasi is distinguished from R. linnaei by the non-tapering caudal widening of the spiracula. The male of R. sanguineus is distinguished from R. linnaei by shorter extension that does not taper into a long narrow extension of the spiracula. The genital pore atrium of female R. linnaei is broadly U-shaped, while it is a narrower U-shape in R. sanguineus. The remaining species within the R. sanguineus species complex - Rhipicephalus sulcatus Neumann, 1908, Rhipicephalus turanicus Pomerantsev, 1940, Rhipicephalus guilhoni Morel & Vassilades, 1963, Rhipicephalus secundus Feldman-Muhsam, 1952 and Rhipicephalus afranicus Bakkes, 2020, all exhibit spiracula with the dorsal prolongation as wide as the adjacent festoon. The DNA sequence of R. linnaei is most closely related to R. guilhoni. The phylogenetic analysis of mitogenome (mtDNA) sequences including assembled mtDNA from whole genome sequencing of the neotype supports R. linnaei as a well-defined taxon when compared with DNA sequences of other species of the R. sanguineus species complex, in particular: R. sanguineus, R. turanicus, R. secundus and R. camicasi. Molecularly, R. linnaei belongs to the so-called R. sanguineus s.l. "tropical lineage" distributed globally including the Americas, Africa, Europe, Asia and is the only species from R. sanguineus species complex in Australia.

Plant Bioactive Ingredients in Delivery Systems and Nanocarriers for the Treatment of Leishmaniasis: An Evidence-Based Review

Background

This study was designed considering the challenges of leishmaniasis treatment and the benefits of carriers of drug delivery systems to review plant bioactive ingredients in delivery systems and nanocarriers for the treatment of leishmaniasis.

Methods

The methodology of this review investigation followed the 06-PRISMA recommendations. The searches were carried out up to January 30, 2022, in the central English databases SCOPUS, WEB OF SCIENCE, EMBASE, PUBMED, and GOOGLE SCHOLAR using the search terms "ç", "leishmaniasis", "herbal medicines", "drug delivery", "nanocarriers", "herbal compounds", and "secondary metabolites".

Results

Out of 5731 articles, 19 publications, including 12 in vivo (63.15%), 3 in vitro (15.8%), and 4 in vitro/in vivo (21.1%) up to 2022, fulfilled the criteria presence for argument in the current systematic study. Plant bioactive ingredients were curcumin, betulinic acid, artemisinin, 4-nitrobenzaldehyde thiosemicarbazone, andrographolide, pentalinonsterol, ursolic acid, amarogentin, carvacrol, 14-deoxy-11-oxo-andrographolide, quercetin, beta-lapachone, cedrol, 2',6'-dihydroxy-4'-methoxychalcone, and oleanolic acid.

Conclusion

The high potential of plant bioactive ingredients in delivery systems due to the load on the nanocarrier for the treatment of leishmaniasis through some main mechanisms of action, e.g. changes in the fluidity and the structure of the cell wall, creation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and mitochondrial dysfunction, inhibition of DNA topoisomerase I enzyme, minimal cytotoxicity, stimulation of cell cycle disruption, stimulation of apoptosis, enhancement of the immune system. However, further investigations, especially in the clinical setting, are required to confirm these findings.

Identification and Genetic Characterization of Fasciola hepatica Isolated from Cattle in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia Based on Sequence Analysis of Mitochondrial (COI) Gene

Background

In Saudi Arabia, more than US$ 0.2 million annual losses are caused by liver condemnations due to fascioliasis. Data obtained from the genetic characterization of Fasciola population sheds light on parasite transmission which could eventually help in development of effective parasite control measures. So, the aim of this study was to investigate the genetic diversity of Fasciola spp. isolated from cattle in Saudi Arabia by sequence analyses of COI gene.

Materials and Methods

A total of 325 cows slaughtered at the central municipal abattoir in Jeddah city, Jeddah Province, Saudi Arabia were examined for fascioliasis in the period from 1^st of June to 1^st of July 2020. DNA was extracted from adult Fasciola worms and used for PCR and DNA sequence using a primer pair targeting COI gene. Analysis of the obtained sequences was done using BLAST search and phylogenetic analysis.

Results

Bovine fascioliasis was diagnosed in 18 out of 325 cattle (5.5%). Forty-eight flukes were extracted from infected animals and DNA was successfully amplified from all flukes. Overall 12 different DNA sequences were obtained. BLAST search showed that all obtained sequences were F. hepatica and had >97% similarity with F. hepatica isolates from Tanzania, Europe and Iran. Phylogenetic analysis of the obtained sequences showed that Fasciola isolates from the current study were clustered in one subclade closely related to isolates from North and South Africa and Italy.

Conclusion

Reports on the molecular characterization of Fasciola spp. in Saudi Arabia are limited. In the current study, our findings showed that F. hepatica was the only Fasciola species parasitizing cattle in Jeddah city, Saudi Arabia. Further studies using a large number of samples from different localities in Saudi Arabia are needed to provide data that will help the development of control measures against fascioliasis.

Stachys lavandulifolia Vahl. exhibits promising in vitro and in vivo antileishmanial activity against Leishmania major infection

This study aimed to consider the in vitro and in vivo effects of the Stachys lavandulifolia methanolic extract (SLME) (2.5, 5, 10, 25, 50, 100 µg/mL) against Leishmania major infection. The in vitro antileishmanial effects of SLME was studies on promastigote and amastigote forms of L. major. The effect of SLME on the nitric oxide (NO) and apoptosis, secretion of Th1/2 cytokines, and infectivity rate in macrophages cells were also studies. The cytotoxicity of SLME on human (THP-1) and murine (J774-A1 cell) macrophage cells was investigated through the measuring the 50% cytotoxic concentrations (CC₅₀). Moreover, the in vivo effects of SLME for healing the cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) lesions in infected BALB/c mice studied by assessing the lesions size and the parasite load during four weeks of treatment. The calculated 50% inhibitory concentration (IC₅₀) valuesfor SLME and meglumine antimoniate (MA) against the promastigote stage were 23.4 and 71.1 µg/mL, respectively. For amastigote stage, the IC₅₀ values for SLME and MA were 39.3 µg/mL and 44.3 µg/mL, respectively. Followed by 28 days' topically therapy with SLME at doses of 50 and 100 mg/kg/day, the CL lesions size as well as parasite load were significantly (p<0.001) reduced; such that the recovery percentage of the infected mice was 80% and 97% after treatment with SLME at the dose of 50 and 100 mg/kg, respectively. SLME also markedly induced the NO production and apoptosis; whereas decreased infection rate in macrophage cells. After incubation of infected macrophages with SLME, the level interferon gamma was meaningfully (p<0.001) elevated as a dose-dependent response; in contrast, release of interleukin 10 (IL-10) and IL-4 markedly (p<0.001) decreased. The CC₅₀ value for SLME against THP-1 and J774-A1 cell was 996.4 µg/mL and 741.3 µg/mL, respectively. The calculated selectivity index of >10 for SLME and MA confirmed their specificity to amastigotes and the low toxicity for macrophages. Our results showed the potent effects of SLME in eliminating and controlling Leishmania parasites in both in vitro and in vivo assays. Based on the current experimental study, SLME can be suggested as an alternative medicine for the isolation and production of a new agent for treating CL caused by L. major. Although, we found some cellular mechanisms of SLME against Leishmania parasites, but, additional surveys are necessary to specify the accurate mechanisms of action, toxicity, and its efficacy mainly in human subjects.

Structure-based in silico design and in vitro acaricidal activity assessment of Acacia nilotica and Psidium guajava extracts against Sarcoptes scabiei var. cuniculi

Infestation by Sarcoptes scabiei var. cuniculi mite causes scabies in humans and mange in animals. Alternative methods for developing environmentally friendly and effective plant-based acaricides are now a priority. The purpose of this research was the in silico design and in vitro evaluation of the efficacy of ethanol extracts of Acacia nilotica and Psidium guajava plant leaves against S. scabiei. Chem-Draw ultra-software (v. 12.0.2.1076.2010) was used to draw 36 distinct compounds from these plants that were employed as ligands in docking tests against S. scabiei Aspartic protease (SsAP). With docking scores of - 6.50993 and - 6.16359, respectively, clionasterol (PubChem CID 457801) and mangiferin (PubChem CID 5281647) from A. nilotica inhibited the targeted protein SsAP, while only beta-sitosterol (PubChem CID 222284) from P. guajava interacted with the SsAP active site with a docking score of - 6.20532. Mortality in contact bioassay at concentrations of 0.25, 0.5, 1.0, and 2.0 g/ml was determined to calculate median lethal time (LT₅₀) and median lethal concentration (LC₅₀) values. Acacia nilotica extract had an LC₅₀ value of 0.218 g/ml compared to P. guajava extract, which had an LC₅₀ value of 0.829 g/ml at 6 h. These results suggest that A. nilotica extract is more effective in killing mites, and these plants may have novel acaricidal properties against S. scabiei. Further research should focus on A. nilotica as a potential substitute for clinically available acaricides against resistant mites.

Therapeutic Potential and Safety of the Cinnamomum zeylanicum Methanolic Extract Against Chronic Toxoplasma gondii Infection in Mice

Background

This experimental study determined the in vitro, in vivo, and toxicity effects of Cinnamomum zeylanicum methanolic extract (CZME) against Toxoplasma gondii infection.

Methods

The in vitro activity of CZME T. gondii tachyzoites was studied by the MTT (3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide) assay. Infected mice were treated with CZME for two weeks at doses of 20, 40, and 60 mg/kg/day. Then, the therapeutic effects of CZME were evaluated by assessing the mean number and mean size of T. gondii tissue cysts, oxidant-antioxidant enzymes, pro-inflammatory cytokines, and mRNA expression levels of bradyzoite surface antigen 1 (BAG1) by real-time PCR.

Results

CZME significantly (p <0.001) increased the mortality rate of parasites in a dose- and time-dependent response. The mean number of intracellular tachyzoites was significantly reduced after CZME therapy. The treatment of infected mice with CZME resulted in a significant (p <0.001) downregulation of BAG1 and the level of lipid peroxidation (LPO) and nitric oxide (NO) as oxidative stress markers. However, a considerable rise (p <0.05) was found in the levels of antioxidant markers such as glutathione peroxidase (GPx), catalase enzyme (CAT), and superoxide dismutase enzyme activity (SOD). In a dose-dependent response, after treatment of infected mice with CZME, the level of pro-inflammatory cytokines of IFN-γ, IL-1β, and IL-12 was considerably elevated. CZME had no significant cytotoxicity on Vero cells, with a 50% cytotoxic concentration of 169.5 ± 5.66 μg/ml.

Conclusion

The findings confirmed the promising therapeutic effects of CZME on chronic toxoplasmosis in mice. Nevertheless, further investigations must confirm these results, elucidate its precise mechanisms, and examine its effectiveness in human volunteers.

Acaricidal, Larvacidal, and Repellent Activity of Elettaria cardamomum Essential Oil against Hyalomma anatolicum Ticks Infesting Saudi Arabian Cattle

Background: In this experimental study, we aimed to assess the acaricidal effects of Elettaria cardamomum L. essential oil (ECEO) against Hyalomma anatolicum tick in cattle from Saudi Arabia. Methods: Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) was performed to identify the chemical composition of ECEO. The acaricidal, larvicidal, and repellent activity of ECEO against H. anatolicum was studied through the adult immersion test (AIT), the larval packet test (LPT), the vertical movement behavior of tick’s larvae technique, anti-acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity, and oxidative enzyme activity. Results: By GC/MS, the most compounds were 1,8-cineole (34.3%), α-terpinyl acetate (23.3%), and α-pinene (17.7%), respectively. ECEO significantly (p < 0.001) increased the mortality rate as a dose-dependent response. After ECEO Treatment, number of eggs, egg weight, and hatchability significantly declined as a dose-dependent response. ECEO at concentrations of 5 µL/mL and above completely killed the larva. The LC50 and LC90 values for ECEO were 1.46 and 2.68 µL/mL, respectively. ECEO at concentrations of 10, 20, and 40 µL/mL showed 100% repellency activity up to 60, 120, and 360 min incubation, respectively. ECEO, especially at ½ LC50 and LC50, significantly inhibited GST and AChE activities of H. anatolicum larvae compared to the control group. Conclusions: We found promising adulticidal, larvicidal, and repellent effects of ECEO against H. anatolicum as a vector of theileriosis in Saudi Arabia. We also found that ECEO displayed these activities through inhibiting AChE and GST. Nevertheless, additional investigations are required to confirm the accurate mechanisms and the relevance of ECEO in practical application.

Tick-borne haemoparasitic diseases in small ruminants in Pakistan: Current knowledge and future perspectives

Livestock industry is an essential part of Pakistan’s economy, and a variety of ruminants (including sheep and goats) are reared for the increasing demand of milk, meat and hide products. Haemoparasitic illnesses such as theileriosis, anaplasmosis, and babesiosis are a significant health risk for small ruminants in our country. Information regarding distribution patterns, the tick species involved and effective strategies to control tick-borne diseases (TBD) in goats and sheep of Pakistan is limited. To this end, it is required to assess the present rank of TBDs in small ruminants of Pakistan with a note on their vector ticks in order to control and identify the gaps in the knowledge of TBDs. This will recommend areas for future research and will add to the understanding of these diseases and will draw attention to the need for better-quality tools for the diagnosis and control of TBDs in small ruminants of Pakistan.

Antiparasitic effects of Elettaria cardamomum L. essential oil and its main compounds, 1-8 Cineole alone and in combination with albendazole against Echinococcus granulosus protoscoleces

Background

The present investigation aims to determine the chemical structure and protoscolicidal effects of Elettaria cardamomum L. essential oil (ECEO) and its main compounds 1–8 cineole alone and along with albendazole (ALZ) against Echinococcus granulosus protoscoleces in vitro and ex vivo. We also decided to evaluate some cellular mechanisms such as the apoptotic activity and the permeability of plasma membrane of protoscoleces treated with ECEO and 1–8 cineole.

Methods

Hydatid cyst protoscoleces were divided into seven groups including protoscoleces treated with ECEO 50 µl/mL (T1), protoscoleces treated with ECEO 100 µl/mL (T2), protoscoleces treated with ECEO 200 µl/mL (T3), protoscoleces treated with 1–8 cineole 100 µg/mL (T4), protoscoleces treated with 1–8 cineole 200 µg/mL (T5), protoscoleces treated with 1–8 cineole 100 µg/mL + albendazole 50 µg/mL (T6), and protoscoleces treated with 1–8 cineole 200 µg/mL + albendazole ALZ-50 µg/mL (T7). The viability of protoscoleces were recorded by eosin staining examination. Moreover, the induction of apoptosis and the plasma membrane permeability of the protoscoleces treated with ECEO and 1–8 cineole were evaluated.

Results

The highest protoscolicidal effect of ECEO was observed at the dose of 200 µl/ml (T3). 1,8-Cineole alone and combined with ALZ, particularly at the dose of 200 µg/ml (T5 and T7), destroyed the 100% protoscolices after 10 min incubation. The ECEO (T1-T3) and 1–8 cineole alone (T4 and T5) and in combination with ALZ (T6 and T7) took longer to display their protoscolicidal effect ex vivo. The obtained results of relative fuorescent items exhibited that the protoscoleces incubated with ECEO and 1,8-Cineole, alter the permeability of plasma membrane by Sytox Green with increasing the concentration. The findings revealed exhibited that ECEO and 1,8-Cineole increasingly and dose-dependently induced activation of caspase-3 enzyme ranging from 6.8 to 23.3%.

Conclusion

Our obtained results revealed that ECEO and its main compound, 1,8-Cineole exhibited the potent protoscolicidal in vitro and ex vivo; and if more research is done on their efficacy and toxicity in animal models and even clinical setting, it can be suggested as a protoscolicidal agent to use during hydatid cyst surgery.

Evaluation of indigenous plants' extracts for mosquitocidal activity against different stages of Culex quinquefasciatus say (Diptera: Culicidae)

Being vector of West Nile Virus and falariasis the control of Culex quinquefasciatus is likely to be essential. Synthetic insecticide treatment is looking most effective for vectors mosquito control. However, these products are toxic to the environment and non-target organisms. Consequently, ecofriendly control of vectors mosquito is needed. In this regard botanical insecticide is looking more fruitful. Therefore, the present research aimed to investigate the effectiveness of methanolic extract and various fractions, including, n-hexane, ethyl-acetate, chloroform, and aqueous fraction, obtained from methanolic extract of Ailanthus altissima, Artemisia scoparia, and Justicia adhatoda using separating funnel against larval, pupal, and adult stages of Culex quinquefasciatus. The larvae and pupae of Culex quinquefasciatus were exposed to various concentrations (31.25-1000 ppm) of methanolic extract and its fractions for 24 hours of exposure period. For knock-down bioassay (filter paper impregnation bioassay) different concentration of the methanolic extract and its various fractions (i.e. 0.0625, 0.125, 0.25, 0.5 and 1mg/mL) were applied for 1 hour exposure period. The results were statistically analysed using standard deviation, probit analysis, and linear regression. The R2 values of larvae, pupae, and adult range from 0.4 to 0.99. The values of LC50 (concentration causing 50% mortality) for late 3rd instar larvae after 24 hours exposure period range from 93-1856.7 ppm, while LC90 values range from 424 -7635.5ppm. The values of LC50for pupae range form 1326.7-6818.4ppm and and values of LC90 range from 3667.3-17427.9ppm, respectively. The KDT50 range from 0.30 to 2.8% and KDT90 values range from1.2 to 110.8%, respectively. In conclusion, Justicia adhatoda may be effective for controlling populations of vector mosquito.

Molecular characterization of Leishmania species from stray dogs and human patients in Saudi Arabia

Leishmania major and Leishmania tropica cause cutaneous leishmaniasis in humans and dogs in several parts of the world, with a large number of cases recorded in the Middle East. However, when they occur in sympatry, the role of each species of Leishmania in the epidemiology of cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) is not clear. To assess the frequency and to identify the species of Leishmania that infect humans and stray dogs in Riyadh and Al-Qaseem (Saudi Arabia), 311 stray dogs and 27 human patients who were suspected for Leishmania infection were examined for CL by a nested polymerase chain reaction (nPCR). Seven (25.9%) out of 27 human patients scored positive for Leishmania spp. (i.e., L. major in five patients from Riyadh and L. tropica in two patients from Al-Qaseem). Out of 311 dogs, five (1.6%) were infected by L. tropica. Data herein presented demonstrate the occurrence of L. tropica in dogs and humans in Saudi Arabia, as well as the occurrence of L. major in humans.

First report regarding molecular epidemiology and novel variant identification of Anaplasma centrale in cattle from Pakistan

Anaplasma centrale (A. centrale) is an obligate red blood cell residing tick transmitted rickettsiae that has not been studied extensively for its prevalence in cattle along with its epidemiology. Aim of this investigation was to report the seasonal prevalence, phylogeny and epidemiological parameters associated with the prevalence of A. centrale in cattle breeds enrolled from District Layyah in Punjab, Pakistan. A total of 844 blood samples [Cross breed = 300, Holstein Friesian = 244, Sahiwal breed = 300)] were collected from apparently healthy cattle along with epidemiological data during 2017-18. PCR amplified 426 base pair fragment from 16S rRNA gene of A. centrale in 14.4% (122/844) of cattle. Amplified 16S rRNA partial gene sequence of A. centrale were confirmed by DNA sequencing and deposited to GenBank. Highest A. centrale prevalence was observed in spring (24%) followed by autumn (12.4%) summer (10%) and winter (7.1%) seasons. Sahiwal breed (18.3%) was most susceptible to A. centrale infection followed by cross (12.3%) and Holstein Friesian breed (12.3%). 69/844 (8.2%) of Giemsa stained cattle blood smears were also found positive for Anaplasma spp. Farms where animal use to drink pool water and farms where dogs and other dairy animals were living with cattle had higher A. centrale prevalence. Female cattle and dogs having tick burden were found associated with A. centrale infection. Hematological profile was severely disturbed in A. centrale positive cattle. It is recommended that A. centrale should be screened in cattle, in addition to A. marginale, for the effective control of tick born diseases in Pakistan.

Green synthesis of zinc nanoparticles using Lavandula angustifolia Vera. Extract by microwave method and its prophylactic effects on Toxoplasma gondii infection

Background

Today, a suitable vaccine has not yet been discovered to prevent Toxoplasma gondii infection. Therefore, prophylaxis can be suggested as the preferred approach to prevent toxoplasmosis. This study aims to evaluate the prophylactic effects of synthesized zinc nanoparticles (ZnNPs) using Lavandula angustifolia Vera., by microwave method on chronic toxoplasmosis in mice.

Methods

BALB/c Mice orally administrated with ZnNPs the doses of 32.5, 75, 150 mg/kg/day for two weeks. On the 15th day, the mice were intraperitoneally infected with the Tehran strain of T. gondii (25 tissue cysts). The mean diameter and the numbers of brain tissue cysts, as well as the mRNA levels of inducible nitric oxide synthesize (iNOs), and interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) in mice of each experimental group were evaluated.

Results

The synthesized ZnNPs represent a spherical form with a size ranging from 30 to 80 nm. The results revealed that oral administration of Zn NPs at the doses of 32.5 (p < 0.001) and 75 mg/kg/day (p < 0.001) for 14 days significantly reduced the mean number and diameter of the brain tissue cysts in tested mice. No T. gondii tissue cyst was observed after oral administration of Zn NPs at the doses of 150 mg/kg. Based on the results of Real-time PCR analysis, the expression level of IFN-γ and iNOs was significantly increased (p < 0.001) in mice treated with 32.5, 75, 150 mg/kg/day for two weeks.

Conclusion

The obtained findings of the current investigation exhibit the significant prophylactic effects of ZnNPs against chronic toxoplasmosis in mice; so that oral administration of ZnNPs the doses 32.5, 75, 150 mg/kg reduced the parasite load and even completely controlled the infection in mice. The results show that the ZnNPs had strengthened the innate immune system which could be the reason for its strong prophylactic effects. However, further in vivo and clinical investigations are required to confirm these results as well as other possible mechanisms that can trigger these pharmacological properties.

Systematic review on medicinal plants used for the treatment of Giardia infection

Background

However, broad adoption of herbal remedies for giardiasis is at present hampered by uncertain findings of investigation not always sufficiently powered. This study was aimed at systematically reviewing the existing literature in herbal medicines to treat giardiasis.

Methods

This review was carried out 06- PRISMA guideline and registered in the CAMARADES-NC3Rs Preclinical Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis Facility (SyRF) database. The search was performed in five databases which are Scopus, PubMed, Web of Science, EMBASE, and Google Scholar without time limitation for all published articles (in vitro, in vivo, and clinical studies). The searched words and terms were: “Giardia”, “giardiasis”, “extract”, “essential oil”, “herbal medicines”, “anti-Giardia”, “In vitro”, “In vivo”, “clinical trial” etc.

Results

Out of 1585 papers, 40 papers including 28 in vitro (70.0%), 7 in vivo (17.5%), 2 in vitro/ in vivo (5.0%), and 3 clinical trials (7.5%) up to 2020, met the inclusion criteria for discussion in this systematic review. The most widely used medicinal plants against Giardia infection belong to the family Lamiaceae (30.0%) followed by Asteraceae (13.5%), Apiaceae (10.5%). The most common parts used in the studies were aerial parts (45.0%) followed by leaves (27.4%) and seeds (7.5%). The aqueous extract (30.0%), essential oil (25.4%) and hydroalcholic and methanolic (10.5%) were considered as the desired approaches of herbal extraction, respectively.

Conclusion

The current review showed that the plant-based anti-Giardia agents are very promising as an alternative and complementary resource for treating giardiasis since had low significant toxicity. However, more studies are required to elucidate this conclusion, especially in clinical systems.

A Systematic Review of Curcumin and its Derivatives as Valuable Sources of Antileishmanial Agents

BACKGROUND

In recent years, antimonial agents and other synthetic antileishmanial drugs, such as amphotericin B, paromomycin, and many other drugs, have restrictions in use due to the toxicity risk, high cost, and emerging resistance to these drugs. The present study aimed to review the antileishmanial effects of curcumin, its derivatives, and other relevant pharmaceutical formulations on leishmaniasis.

METHODS

The present study was carried out according to the 06-preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses (PRISMA) guideline and registered in the CAMARADES-NC3Rs Preclinical Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis Facility (SyRF) database. Some English-language databases including PubMed, Google Scholar, Web of Science, EBSCO, Science Direct, and Scopus were searched for publications worldwide related to antileishmanial effects of curcumin, its derivatives, and other relevant pharmaceutical formulations, without date limitation, to identify all the published articles (in vitro, in vivo, and clinical studies). Keywords included "curcumin", "Curcuma longa", "antileishmanial", "Leishmania", "leishmaniasis", "cutaneous leishmaniasis", "visceral leishmaniasis", "in vitro", and "in vivo".

RESULTS

Out of 5492 papers, 29 papers including 20 in vitro (69.0%), 1 in vivo (3.4%), and 8 in vitro/in vivo (27.6%) studies conducted up to 2020, met the inclusion criteria for discussion in this systematic review. The most common species of the Leishmania parasite used in these studies were L. donovani (n = 13, 44.8%), L. major (n = 10, 34.5%), and L. amazonensis (n = 6, 20.7%), respectively. The most used derivatives in these studies were curcumin (n = 15, 33.3%) and curcuminoids (n = 5, 16.7%), respectively.

CONCLUSION

In the present review, according to the studies in the literature, various forms of drugs based on curcumin and their derivatives exhibited significant in vitro and in vivo antileishmanial activity against different Leishmania spp. The results revealed that curcumin and its derivatives could be considered as an alternative and complementary source of valuable antileishmanial components against leishmaniasis, which had no significant toxicity. However, further studies are required to elucidate this concluding remark, especially in clinical settings.

A report on tick burden and molecular detection of tick-borne pathogens in cattle blood samples collected from four regions in Saudi Arabia

Babesiosis, theileriosis and anaplasmosis are among the most commonly reported tick-borne diseases in cattle and are associated with significant economic losses. Through the present study the researchers aimed to report the presence of various pathogens that cause babesiosis, theileriosis and anaplasmosis in cattle collected from different provinces in Saudi Arabia and to report their phylogenetic relationship. A total of 362 blood samples of cattle along with ticks that were present on the cattle were collected from four regions (Riyadh, Al-Kharj, Al-Hasa and Al-Qassim) of Saudi Arabia. Blood samples were screened by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for the presence of various Babesia, Theileria and Anaplasma species by amplification of their 18S rRNA and/or 23S rRNA genes. A total of 541 ticks were collected and identified from the cattle. These included Hyalomma anatolicum, Hyalomma dromedarii, Hyalomma impeltatum, Hyalomma excavatum, Rhipicephalus annulatus and Rhipicephalus turanicus. Regarding tick-borne pathogens, the overall prevalence was 1.9 % (7/362) for Theileria annulata, (2/362) 0.6 % for Theileria and (21/362) 5.8 % for Anaplasma ovis. Four of the cattle were found to be co-infected with more than one pathogen (1.1 %). We did not detect any Babesia species in the blood of the studied cattle. Prevalence of the Theileria and Anaplasma species was highest in cattle that resided in Riyadh, followed by cattle from Al-Hasa and Al-Qassim. Representative amplified partial-gene sequences of T. annulata (GenBank accession numbers MK826137-39) and A. ovis (GenBank acc. no. MK 880224) were submitted to GenBank. The presence of ticks on cattle was found to be associated with a high prevalence of Theileria spp. (P = 0.02) and Anaplasma ovis (P < 0.001). We report novel genotypes of T. annulata and A. ovis from cattle in Saudi Arabia and we recommend that molecular surveys are undertaken throughout the country to address the prevalence and geographical distribution of tick-borne infections for their effective diagnosis and treatment.

Molecular Identification of Trypanosoma evansi Isolated from Arabian Camels (Camelus dromedarius) in Riyadh and Al-Qassim, Saudi Arabia

We analyzed the blood from 400 one-humped camels, Camelus dromedarius (C. dromedarius), in Riyadh and Al-Qassim, Saudi Arabia to determine if they were infected with the parasite Trypanosoma spp. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) targeting the internal transcribed spacer 1 (ITS1) gene was used to detect the prevalence of Trypanosoma spp. in the camels. Trypanosoma evansi (T. evansi) was detected in 79 of 200 camels in Riyadh, an infection rate of 39.5%, and in 92 of 200 camels in Al-Qassim, an infection rate of 46%. Sequence and phylogenetic analyses revealed that the isolated T. evansi was closely related to the T. evansi that was detected in C. dromedarius in Egypt and the T. evansi strain B15.1 18S ribosomal RNA gene identified from buffalo in Thailand. A BLAST search revealed that the sequences are also similar to those of T. evansi from beef cattle in Thailand and to T. brucei B8/18 18S ribosomal RNA from pigs in Nigeria.

Fe3O4@piroctone olamine magnetic nanoparticles: Synthesize and therapeutic potential in cutaneous leishmaniasis

BACKGROUND

In recent years, magnetic nanoparticles (NMP) as novel materials have been widely used for biomedical, diagnostic and therapeutic purposes like microbial infection therapy. The purpose of this study is to synthesize PO coated iron oxide magnetic nanoparticles (Fe3O4@PO NPs) and their anti-leishmanial effects in vitro and in vivo against cutaneous leishmaniasis.

METHODS

Fe3O4 magnetic nanoparticles were synthesized by the coprecipitation of Fe2 + and Fe3 + ions and used as a nanocarrier for the production of Fe3O4@PO NPs. The in vitro antileishmanial effects of PO-coated Fe3O4 NPs and Fe3O4 NPs (10-200 µg/mL) was determined against the intracellular amastigotes of Leishmania major (MRHO/IR/75/ER) and, then, examined on cutaneous leishmaniasis induced in male BALB/c mice by L. major. The rate of infectivity, production of nitric oxide (NO), and cytotoxic activates of Fe3O4 NPs and Fe3O4@PO NPs on J774-A1 macrophage cells were determined.

RESULTS

The size scattering of the Fe3O4 NPs and Fe3O4@PO NPs were in the range among 1-40 and 5-55 nm, respectively. The obtained IC₅₀ values were 62.3 ± 2.15 μg/mL, 31.3 ± 2.26 μg/mL, and 52.6 ± 2.15 μg/mL for the Fe3O4 NPs and Fe3O4@PO NPs, and MA, respectively. The results revealed that the mean number of parasites and the mean diameter of the lesions was considerably (p < 0.05) decreased in the infected mice treated with Fe3O4 NPs and Fe3O4@PO NPs. The Fe3O4 NPs and Fe3O4@PO NPs significantly (p < 0.05) prompted the production of NO as a dose-dependent manner. The promastigotes pre-incubated in Fe3O4 NPs and Fe3O4@PO NPs at the concentration of 5 µg/mL had the ability to infect only 41.7% and 28.3% of the macrophages cells. The selectivity index of greater than 10 for Fe3O4 NPs and Fe3O4@PO NPs showed its safety to the J774-A1 macrophage cells and specificity to the parasite.

CONCLUSION

The results of this survey indicated the high potency of Fe3O4@PO NPs to inhibit the growth of amastigote forms of L. major as well as recovery and improvement CL induced by L. major in BALB/c mice without significant cytotoxicity. The results also indicated that, although the possible anti-leishmanial mechanisms of Fe3O4@PO NPs have not been clearly understood, however, the triggering of NO may be considered as one of the possible anti-leishmanial mechanisms of these nanoparticles. However, additional studies, in particular in clinical contexts, are mandatory.

Seroprevalence and associated risk factors for vector-borne pathogens in dogs from Egypt

Background

Dogs play an important role as reservoirs of many zoonotic vector-borne pathogens worldwide, yet reports of canine vector-borne diseases (CVBDs) in Egypt are scarce.

Methods

Serum samples were collected from pet dogs (n = 500) of the three most common breeds (German Shepherd, Rottweiler and Pit Bull) in five Governates of Cairo (n = 230), Giza (n = 110), Al-Qalyubia (n = 60), Al-Gharbia (n = 60) and Kafr El-Sheikh (n = 40) with a hot desert climate. The presence of antibodies to Anaplasma spp. (A. phagocytophilum, A. platys), Ehrlichia spp. (E. canis, E. chaffeensis, E. ewingii), Borrelia burgdorferi (s.l.) and Dirofilaria immitis were assessed using IDEXX SNAP^® 4Dx^® ELISA tests. For each pathogen, risk factors (i.e. geographical area, keeping condition, sex, age, breed, tick infestation, weekly sanitation of dog enclosures and application of ectoparasiticides) were evaluated by logistic regression approach.

Results

In total, 18.2% (n = 91, 95% CI 15.1–21.8) of dogs scored seropositive for at least one pathogen, the most frequent being Ehrlichia spp. (n = 56; 11.2%; 95% CI 8.7–14.3) followed by Anaplasma spp. (n = 33; 6.6%, 95% CI 4.7–9.1), Borrelia burgdorferi (s.l.) (n = 9; 1.8%, 95% CI 0.9–3.4) and D. immitis (n = 7; 1.4%, 95% CI 0.9–2.9). In the tested population, 15.4% (95% CI 12.5–18.8) of dogs were exposed to a single pathogen while 2.4 (95% CI 1.4–4.2) and 0.4% (95% CI 0.1–1.4) were simultaneously exposed to two or three pathogens, respectively. Major risk factors associated with VBDs were living outdoors (Anaplasma spp., P = 0.0001; Ehrlichia spp., P = 0.0001), female sex (Ehrlichia spp., P = 0.005), German Shepherd breed (Anaplasma spp., P = 0.04; Ehrlichia spp., P = 0.03), tick infestation (Anaplasma spp., P = 0.0001; Ehrlichia spp., P = 0.0001; B. burgdorferi (s.l.), P = 0.003; D. immitis, P = 0.02), irregular sanitation (Anaplasma spp., P = 0.0001; Ehrlichia spp., P = 0.0001; B. burgdorferi (s.l.), P = 0.002; D. immitis, P = 0.01) and not using ectoparasiticides (Anaplasma spp., P = 0.0001; Ehrlichia spp., P = 0.0001; B. burgdorferi (s.l.), P = 0.007).

Conclusion

To our knowledge, this is the first large-scale seroepidemiological study of CVBDs in Egypt. Considering that all of the detected pathogens are potentially zoonotic, effective ectoparasite control strategies, regular examination of pet dogs and successful chemoprophylaxis are advocated.

Chitosan-Based Nanomaterials as Valuable Sources of Anti-Leishmanial Agents: A Systematic Review

BACKGROUND

The current chemotherapy agents against various forms of leishmaniasis have some problems and side effects, including high toxicity, high cost, and the emergence of resistant strains. Here, we aimed to review the preclinical studies (in vitro and in vivo) on the anti-leishmanial activity of chitosan and chitosan-based particles against Leishmania spp.

METHODS

This study was conducted based on the 06-PRISMA guidelines and registered in the CAMARADES-NC3Rs Preclinical Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis Facility (SyRF) database. Various English databases such as PubMed, Google Scholar, Web of Science, EBSCO, ScienceDirect, and Scopus were used to find the publications related to the anti-leishmanial effects of chitosan and its derivatives and other pharmaceutical formulations, without a date limitation, to find all the published articles. The keywords included "chitosan", "chitosan nanoparticles", "anti-leishmanial", "Leishmania", "leishmaniasis", "cutaneous leishmaniasis", "visceral leishmaniasis", "in vitro", and "in vivo". The language for data collection were limited to English.

RESULTS

Of 2669 papers, 25 papers, including 7 in vitro (28.0%), 7 in vivo (28.0%), and 11 in vitro/in vivo (44.0%) studies conducted up to 2020 met the inclusion criteria for discussion in this systematic review. The most common species of Leishmania used in these studies were L. major (12, 48.0%), L. donovani (7, 28.0%), and L. amazonensis (4, 16.80%). In vivo, the most used animals were BALB/c mice (11, 61.1%) followed by hamsters (6, 33.3%) and Wistar rats (1, 5.5%), respectively. In vitro, the most used Leishmania form was amastigote (8, 44.4%), followed by promastigote (4, 22.2%), and both forms promastigote/amastigote (6, 33.3%).

CONCLUSION

According to the literature, different types of drugs based on chitosan and their derivatives demonstrated considerable in vitro and in vivo anti-leishmanial activity against various Leishmania spp. Based on the findings of this review study, chitosan and its derivatives could be considered as an alternative and complementary source of valuable components against leishmaniasis with a high safety index. Nevertheless, more investigations are required to elaborate on this result, mainly in clinical settings.

Chemical Composition, Apoptotic Activity, and Antiparasitic Effects of Ferula macrecolea Essential Oil against Echinococcus granulosus Protoscoleces

Background: Today, the present protoscolicidals used to minimize the serious risks during hydatid cyst surgery are not completely safe and have various adverse side effects. The present study aimed to evaluate the chemical composition and apoptotic activity of Ferula macrecolea essential oil (FMEO) as well as its in vitro and ex vivo protoscolicidal effects against hydatid cyst protoscoleces. Methods: Gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) analysis was performed to determine the chemical composition of FMEO. Protoscoleces of hydatid cysts were collected from liver fertile hydatid cysts of infected sheep and were then treated with various concentrations of the essential oil (75, 150, and 300 µL/mL) for 5–60 min in vitro and ex vivo. Then, by using the eosin exclusion test, the viability of the protoscoleces was studied. The caspase-3-like activity of the FMEO-treated protoscoleces was also evaluated through the colorimetric protease assay Sigma Kit based on the manufacturer’s instructions. Results: According to GC/MS, the main constituents of the essential oil were terpinolene (77.72%), n-nonanal (4.47%), and linalool (4.35%), respectively. In vitro, the maximum protoscolicidal activity of FMEO was observed at the concentrations of 150 and 300 µL/mL, such that 100% of the protoscoleces were killed after 30 and 20 min of exposure, respectively. Based on the obtained findings, the results demonstrate that FMEO required a longer time to kill protoscoleces ex vivo; after 12 min of exposure to FMEO, only 13.4% of the protoscoleces remained alive. After 48 h of the treatment of protoscoleces, FMEO, in a dose-dependent manner and at doses of 75, 150, and 300 µL/mL, induced the activation of the caspase enzyme by 24.3, 35.3, and 48.3%, respectively. Conclusions: Our findings demonstrate the potent protoscolicidal effects of FMEO in vitro and ex vivo; however, further studies are required to assess the safety and the efficiency of FMEO as a promising scolicidal agent in a preclinical model and clinical setting.

Myrtus communis Essential Oil; Anti-Parasitic Effects and Induction of the Innate Immune System in Mice with Toxoplasma gondii Infection

Background: Myrtus communis (M. communis) is a wild aromatic plant used for traditional herbal medicine that can be demonstrated in insecticidal, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial activity of its essential oils (MCEO). Aim: The present study aimed to evaluate the prophylactic effects of M. communis essential oil (MCEO) against chronic toxoplasmosis induced by the Tehran strain of Toxoplasma gondii in mice. Methods: Gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) analysis was performed to determine the chemical composition of MCEO. Mice were then orally administrated with MCEO at the doses of 100, 200, and 300 mg/kg/day and also atovaquone 100 mg/kg for 21 days. On the 15th day, the mice were infected with the intraperitoneal inoculation of 20–25 tissue cysts from the Tehran strain of T. gondii. The mean numbers of brain tissue cysts and the mRNA levels of IL-12 and IFN-γ in mice of each tested group were measured. Results: By GC/MS, the major constituents were α-pinene (24.7%), 1,8-cineole (19.6%), and linalool (12.6%), respectively. The results demonstrated that the mean number of T. gondii tissue cysts in experimental groups Ex1 (p < 0.05), Ex2 (p < 0.001) and Ex3 (p < 0.001) was meaningfully reduced in a dose-dependent manner compared with the control group (C2). The mean diameter of tissue cyst was significantly reduced in mice of the experimental groups Ex2 (p < 0.01) and Ex3 (p < 0.001). The results demonstrated that although the mRNA levels of IFN-γ and IL-12 were elevated in all mice of experimental groups, a significant increase (p < 0.001) was observed in tested groups of Ex2 and Ex3 when compared with control groups. Conclusion: The findings of the present study demonstrated the potent prophylactic effects of MCEO especially in the doses 200 and 300 mg/kg in mice infected with T. gondii. Although the exceptional anti-Toxoplasma effects of MCEO and other possessions, such as improved innate immunity and low toxicity are positive topics, there is, however, a need for more proof from investigations in this field.

A report on tick burden and molecular detection of tick-borne pathogens in cattle blood samples collected from four regions in Saudi Arabia

Babesiosis, theileriosis and anaplasmosis are among the most commonly reported tick-borne diseases in cattle and are associated with significant economic losses. Through the present study the researchers aimed to report the presence of various pathogens that cause babesiosis, theileriosis and anaplasmosis in cattle collected from different provinces in Saudi Arabia and to report their phylogenetic relationship. A total of 362 blood samples of cattle along with ticks that were present on the cattle were collected from four regions (Riyadh, Al-Kharj, Al-Hasa and Al-Qassim) of Saudi Arabia. Blood samples were screened by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for the presence of various Babesia, Theileria and Anaplasma species by amplification of their 18S rRNA and/or 23S rRNA genes. A total of 541 ticks were collected and identified from the cattle. These included Hyalomma anatolicum, Hyalomma dromedarii, Hyalomma impeltatum, Hyalomma excavatum, Rhipicephalus annulatus and Rhipicephalus turanicus. Regarding tick-borne pathogens, the overall prevalence was 1.9 % (7/362) for Theileria annulata, (2/362) 0.6 % for Theileria and (21/362) 5.8 % for Anaplasma ovis. Four of the cattle were found to be co-infected with more than one pathogen (1.1 %). We did not detect any Babesia species in the blood of the studied cattle. Prevalence of the Theileria and Anaplasma species was highest in cattle that resided in Riyadh, followed by cattle from Al-Hasa and Al-Qassim. Representative amplified partial-gene sequences of T. annulata (GenBank accession numbers MK826137-39) and A. ovis (GenBank acc. no. MK 880224) were submitted to GenBank. The presence of ticks on cattle was found to be associated with a high prevalence of Theileria spp. (P = 0.02) and Anaplasma ovis (P < 0.001). We report novel genotypes of T. annulata and A. ovis from cattle in Saudi Arabia and we recommend that molecular surveys are undertaken throughout the country to address the prevalence and geographical distribution of tick-borne infections for their effective diagnosis and treatment.

Molecular prevalence, characterization and associated risk factors of Anaplasma spp. and Theileria spp. in small ruminants in Northern Pakistan

This study was conducted in four districts (Malakand, Swat, Bajaur and Shangla) of Northern Pakistan to investigate the prevalence, associated risk factors and phylogenetic analyses of Theileria and Anaplasma species in small ruminants. A total of 800 blood samples, 200 from each district, were collected from apparently healthy animals. PCR assays were performed using generic primers for Anaplasma spp. and Theileria spp. as well as species specific primers for A. ovis and T. ovis. Overall infection prevalence was 361/800 (45.1%). Theileria spp. infection prevalence (187/800, 23.3%) was higher than Anaplasma spp. (174/800, 21.7%). Amplified partial 18S rRNA genes were sequenced and enrolled animals were found to be infected by T. ovis (115/800, 14.3%), and at least two more Theileria species (72/800, 9%) were present (T. lestoquardi and T. annulata). All blood samples that were found to be positive for Anaplasma spp. were also positive for A. ovis. Infection prevalence was higher in sheep (227/361, 28.3%) compared to goats (134/361, 16.6%) (p < 0.005). Univariable analysis of risk factors showed that host, age, grazing system and acaricide treatment were significant determinants (p < 0.05) for both Theileria and Anaplasma infections. Multivariable analysis revealed that host, sex, age, tick infestation and grazing system were significant risk factors (p < 0.005) for both pathogens. Phylogenetic analysis revealed variants among the A. ovis and T. annulata samples analysed, indicating that different genotypes are circulating in the field while T. ovis presented the same genotype for the samples analysed.

Molecular Survey of Vector-Borne Pathogens of Dogs and Cats in Two Regions of Saudi Arabia

Dogs and cats play an important role as reservoirs of vector-borne pathogens, yet reports of canine and feline vector-borne diseases in Saudi Arabia are scarce. Blood samples were collected from 188 free-roaming dogs and cats in Asir (70 dogs and 44 cats) and Riyadh (74 dogs), Saudi Arabia. The presence of Anaplasma spp., Bartonella spp., hemotropic Mycoplasma spp., Babesia spp., and Hepatozoon spp. was detected using a multiplex tandem real-time PCR. PCR-positive samples were further examined with specific conventional and real-time PCR followed by sequencing. Dogs from Riyadh tested negative for all pathogens, while 46 out of 70 dogs (65.7%) and 17 out of 44 cats (38.6%) from Asir were positive for at least one pathogen. Positive dogs were infected with Anaplasma platys (57.1%), Babesia vogeli (30%), Mycoplasma haemocanis (15.7%), and Bartonella henselae (1.4%), and cats were infected with Mycoplasma haemofelis (13.6%), Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum (13.6%), B. henselae (9.2%), and A. platys (2.27%), all of which are reported for the first time in Saudi Arabia. Co-infection with A. platys and B. vogeli was detected in 17 dogs (24.28%), while coinfections were not detected in cats. These results suggest that effective control and public awareness strategies for minimizing infection in animals are necessary.

Prevalence of Ascaris lumbricoides in contaminated faecal samples of children residing in urban areas of Lahore, Pakistan

Ascariasis is a common public health problem of preschool and primary school children in developing countries like Pakistan. The aim of the present study was to determine the prevalence and pattern of Ascaris lumbericoides (A. lumbricoides) infection among children residing in urban areas of Lahore, to provide information on ascariasis to promote awareness and prevention programs between the participants specially on the months or season of higher prevalence. To investigate the prevalence of Ascaris Lumbricoides in the contaminated faecal samples of children residing in urban areas of Lahore, a study was conducted from November 2010 to October 2012 and we collected 3600 stratified faecal samples from six urban study areas. Overall 32/3600 (0.88%) prevalence of fecal samples was found positive for eggs of Ascaris lumbricoides. Area wise highest presence positivity 1.67% was observed in Allama Iqbal Town followed by 1.17% in Samanabad, 1.00% in Wapda Town, 1.00% in Gulberg, 0.50% in Cantt, and the lowest 0.00% in Valencia Town respectively (p < 0.001) The highest month wise positivity prevalence 3/300 (3.33%) (p < 0.001) was observed in the month of September that gradually declined up to 0/300 (0.00%) in the month of March. The results reveal that urban areas of Lahore are susceptible to Ascaris Lubricoides infection and the highest prevalence were observed autumn on the month of September.

Seroprevalence, associated risk factors analysis and first molecular characterization of chlamydia abortus among Egyptian sheep

Chlamydia abortus is one of the most common abortive agents worldwide in sheep. Few studies have been reported C. abortus infection among sheep in Egypt but the available data is scarce. The objective of the present study was to determine the seroprevalence of C. abortus among sheep, the associated risk factors and its molecular characterization. The present study was conducted on 675 sheep in six Governorates at Northern Egypt. Data analysis confirmed the presence of antibodies against C. abortus in 93 out of 675 sheep. The logistic regression model was fitted to identify the associated risk factors with C. abortus infection. The results revealed that C. abortus increased significantly in ewes (OR = 4.04, 95 %CI: 1.44-11.28) during autumn season (OR = 3.6, 95 %CI: 1.64-8.28), in ewes with a history of abortion (OR = 1.4, 95 %CI: 0.87-2.50) and in farm where no lambing pen (OR = 2.2, 95 %CI: 1.30-3.94) or abscence of post abortion measures (OR = 1.96, 95%CI: 1.23-3.12). In addition, age, flock size and exchange of breeding ram had no significant effect on prevalence of chlamydiosis. Also, PCR assay was confirmed presence of C. abortus as accusative pathogen in aborted ewe and the genetic characterization of Egyptian C. abortus strain revealed 100 % identity with another strain from Iraq. A control program should be applied to reduce economic losses and risk of human infection.

Assessment of Knowledge, Attitudes and Practices Relating to Parasitic Diseases and Anthelmintic Resistance Among Livestock Farmers in Hamedan, Iran

Iranian studies have shown a high prevalence of broad spectrum anthelmintic resistance (AR) in gastrointestinal helminths of ruminants. However, there is a lack of information about levels of knowledge, attitudes and practices among livestock farmers in Iran regarding the concept of parasite control and AR. This study aimed to evaluate the knowledge, attitudes and practices of livestock farmers of Hamedan, Iran, regarding parasitic diseases and AR by interviewing 150 farmers using a structured questionnaire. Most of farmers had some knowledge of the clinical signs associated with helminth parasitism, but more than half were unaware of the existence of zoonotic parasites. More than half of the participants had never heard about AR, but were interested to learn about it through their veterinarians. Those who were aware of the problem considered non-prescribed anthelmintic drugs to play a role in its emergence, while several of the participants believed that “more expensive” and “foreign-branded” drugs worked best. Almost all of the farmers reported that they frequently consulted with a veterinarian about anthelmintic treatments, but very few adhered to recognized principles of responsible and sustainable drug use. About half of the participating farmers treated their sheepdogs for helminth parasites, despite the common practice of regularly feeding likely infected livestock offal. Education had a significantly positive association with farmers' knowledge, attitudes, and best practice scores, while knowledge was significantly associated with both attitudes and practices. Based on these results, we recommend that regular country-wide classes should be held to educate farmers on the evidence-based principles of sustainable helminth control and prevention of zoonotic helminth diseases.

Molecular detection of Candidatus Anaplasma camelii in camels (Camelus dromedarius) from Asir Province, Saudi Arabia

Knowledge of molecular identification of tick-borne pathogens in camels in Saudi Arabia is very limited; few molecular epidemiological studies have been under taken. This study was to detect Anaplasma spp. and Piroplasma spp. in camels from Asir Province, Saudi Arabia. A total of 150 blood samples were collected from camels in Asir Province and investigated by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) that targeted 18S rRNA and 23S rRNA to detect the DNA of Piroplasma spp. and Anaplasma spp., respectively. The positive samples for 23S rRNA were assayed again by PCR targeting the 16S rRNA. All the blood samples were free from Piroplasma spp. infection. Three camels (2%) were found to be positive for Anaplasma infection through use of PCR that targeted the 23S rRNA gene. There were no significant differences between ages or sexes in the camels that tested positive for Anaplasma. All positive Anaplasma infections were recorded in camels that were infested by ticks. Two Anaplasma sequences for the16S rRNA gene were deposited in GenBank with accession numbers MN882724 and MN882725. They recorded 99.16% and 99.34% similarities (respectively) with KF843825.1 (Candidatus Anaplasma camelii reported in Unizah, Saudi Arabia). Phylogenetic analyses revealed that the two sequences recorded in this study were close to each other; both were located in one cluster with Candidatus Anaplasma camelii isolates that were recorded before in the adjacent areas of Unizah in Saudi Arabia and Iran. In conclusion: two new Anaplasma genotypes close to Candidatus Anaplasma camelii were found in camels in Asir Province, Saudi Arabia for the first time. The camels in this province were found to be free of Piroplasma infection.

Ovicidal and Latent Effects of Pulicaria jaubertii (Asteraceae) Leaf Extracts on Aedes aegypti

The control of Aedes aegypti with synthetic pesticides may result in adverse effects on wildlife and the environment. Bioactive plant extracts have been proposed as one of the alternatives to chemical pesticides used against mosquitoes. Here, we report on the ovicidal and latent effects of ethanolic, petroleum ether, and chloroform leaf extracts of Pulicaria jaubertii at 25 to 150 ppm each against the life stages of laboratory stain of Ae. aegypti. At 150 ppm, the ethanolic leaf extract resulted in 100% ovicidal activity, followed by petroleum ether extract (74%), and chloroform extract about 7% mortality. The ethanolic extract produced 100% larval and pupal mortality at both 75 and 50 ppm, while the petroleum ether extract produced 76.5 and 58.3%, respectively. The ethanolic extract recorded the highest percentage of adult mortality (72.7%) at the lowest concentration (25 ppm). At 25 and 50 ppm, the ethanolic extract resulted in 62.2 and 85.2% sterility index of Ae. aegypti females, respectively, as compared with the 0.1 and 3.5% sterility index caused by the chloroform extract at the same concentrations. In conclusion, P. jaubertii appears to have potential to be further evaluated as a mosquito control agent. Additional studies are needed on its mode of action, synergism with other products, and efficacy under actual field conditions.

Efficacy and safety of ethanolic Curcuma longa extract as a treatment for sand tampan ticks in a rabbit model

Background and Aim:

The soft tick Ornithodoros savignyi is distributed throughout Africa, including Egypt. It primarily attacks camels, cattle, donkeys, and cows; and rarely affects humans. This study evaluated the acaricidal efficacy of ethanolic Curcuma longa extract (Turmeric) on the second nymphs of O. savignyi and then investigated the safety of this herb in rabbits.

Materials and Methods:

The nymphs were immersed in 10, 5, 2.5, 1.25, and 0.625 mg/ml ethanolic C. longa extract. An additional group was immersed in ethanol as a control. On the 1^st, 7^th, and 15^th-day post-treatment, the mortality percentages, LC₅₀, and LC₉₅ were calculated. The ticks exposed to 10mg/ml ethanol C. longa extract were investigated by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Three male New Zealand White rabbits were orally administered 2ml (two doses) of 10mg/ml ethanolic C. longa extract, and another three rabbits were orally given two doses of 2ml of absolute ethanol as a negative control. Histopathological examination of the kidney and liver hematology and the kidney and liver function was performed. Chemical analysis of the extract was determined by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS).

Results:

The LC₅₀ and LC₉₅ were 1.31 and 15.07, 1.07 and 8.56, and 0.81 and 6.97mg/ml on the 1^st, 7^th, and 15^thday, respectively. SEM revealed that mamillae and spots on the surfaces of the treated ticks were not discriminating except for some clefts on the surfaces. The histological examination, blood profile, and biochemical analyses revealed no significant differences between the treated and untreated rabbits (p>0.05). GC/MS analysis revealed 50 compounds, and curcumene and tumerone were found to be the major constituents of this ethanolic extract.

Conclusion:

The ethanolic C. longa extract produced a strong acaricidal effect on the second nymph of O. savignyi, and it was safe to use in rabbits.

Ticks and associated pathogens in camels (Camelus dromedarius) from Riyadh Province, Saudi Arabia

BACKGROUND

Camel production in Saudi Arabia is severely affected by various diseases and by inadequate veterinary services. Ticks and tick-borne pathogens (TBPs) affect the health and wellbeing of camels consequently diminishing their productivity and performances. In addition, camels may act as hosts for TBPs (e.g. Anaplasma phagocytophilum) causing diseases in humans. The current study aimed to determine the prevalence of ixodid ticks and molecularly investigate the associated pathogens in camels from Saudi Arabia.

METHODS

Blood and tick samples were collected from camels (n = 170) in Riyad Province of Saudi Arabia. Ticks were morphologically identified, and blood of camels were molecularly screened for apicomplexan (i.e. Babesia spp., Theileria spp., Hepatozoon spp.) and rickettsial parasites (i.e. Ehrlichia spp. and Anaplasma spp.).

RESULTS

Of the 170 camels examined, 116 (68.2%; 95% CI: 60.9-75.1%) were infested by ticks with a mean intensity of 2.53 (95% CI: 2.4-2.6). In total of 296 ticks collected, Hyalomma dromedarii was the most prevalent (76.4%), followed by Hyalomma impeltatum (23.3%) and Hyalomma excavatum (0.3%). Of the tested animals, 13 (7.6%; 95% CI: 4.3-12.8%) scored positive to at least one TBP, with Anaplasma platys (5.3%; 95% CI: 2.7-9.9%) being the most prevalent species, followed by Anaplasma phagocytophilum, Anaplasma sp., Ehrlichia canis and Hepatozoon canis (0.6% each; 95% CI: 0.04-3.4%). None of the camels were found to be co-infected with more than one pathogen. All samples tested negative for Babesia spp. and Theileria spp.

CONCLUSIONS

The present study reveals the occurrence of different tick species and TBPs in camels from Saudi Arabia. Importantly, these camels may carry A. phagocytophilum and A. platys, representing a potential risk to humans.

Species Diversity and Seasonal Distribution of Hard Ticks (Acari: Ixodidae) Infesting Mammalian Hosts in Various Districts of Riyadh Province, Saudi Arabia

Hard ticks are among the most important blood sucking arthropods that transmit pathogens to humans and animals. This study was designed to determine prevalence, mapping, geographical distribution, and seasonal activity of hard tick species infesting the most common domestic and wild mammals in various districts of Riyadh Province, Saudi Arabia, during the period January to December 2017. In total, 10,832 adult hard ticks were collected from the bodies of 8,435 animals belonging to 18 different mammalian species. The ticks were preserved in 70% alcohol and microscopy was used to identify species. Two genera, Hyalomma and Rhipicephalus, were identified, comprising 10 species of hard ticks, with Hyalomma comprising 68.3% and Rhipicephalus comprising 31.7% of species. The most common species on domestic mammalian hosts was Hyalomma dromedarii (Koch 1844) (39.9%) followed by Rhipicephalus turanicus (Pomerantsev, Matikashvili & Lotosky 1936) (34.9%), whereas on wild mammalian hosts Rhipicephalus sanguineus (Latreille 1806) was by far the most prevalent species (83.0%). However, ticks were most abundant during May through July (36.0%) in the studied areas, and tick intensity and abundance differed among seasons. Our results provide information for human and animal health service managers, as well as governmental authorities, to gain a better understanding of hard ticks infesting mammalian hosts in Riyadh Province, Saudi Arabia, which can help improve prevention and control of tick-borne diseases, especially during outbreaks.

Rhipicephalus sanguineus sensu lato from dogs and dromedary camels in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: low prevalence of vector-borne pathogens in dogs detected using multiplexed tandem PCR panel

Despite the global distribution of the brown dog tick, Rhipicephalus sanguineus (Latreille, 1806) sensu lato (s.l.), limited information exists about their identity from the Arabian Peninsula. Ticks from free roaming urban dogs and dromedary camels in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia were morphologically identified, confirmed with scanning electron microscopy and characterised at mitochondrial DNA (cox1, 12S rDNA and 16S rDNA). A total of 186 ticks were collected from 65 free roaming dogs (n = 73) and 84 dromedary camels (n = 113). Morphologically, 5.9% (11/186) were R. sanguineus s.l. and Hyalomma spp. (93.5%, 174/186). From within R. sanguineus s.l., the presence of Rhipicephalus cf. camicasi Morel, Mouchet et Rodhain, 1976 (1 dog, 2 camels) and Rhipicephalus turanicus Pomerantsev, 1936 (1 camel) is reported. The examined R. cf. camicasi form a sister group to R. sanguineus s.l. tropical lineage at all DNA markers. Dogs were parasitised by Hyalomma dromedarii Koch, 1844 (n = 59), Hyalomma impeltatum Schulze et Schlottke, 1930 (n = 1), Hyalomma excavatum Koch, 1844 (n = 2), Hyalomma turanicum Pomerantsev, 1946 (n = 1) and Hyalomma rufipes Koch,1844 (n = 1). DNA from dog blood (n = 53) from Riyadh confirmed a low prevalence of canine vector-borne pathogens that does not exceed 5.7% for Babesia spp., Mycoplasma spp., Anaplasma platys, Hepatozoon canis and Ehrlichia canis using multiplexed tandem PCR (MT-PCR) and diagnostic PCR. Low prevalence of R. sanguineus s.l. on dogs likely contributed to the low level of canine vector-borne pathogens in Saudi Arabia. We demonstrate that dogs in the central Arabian Peninsula are more commonly parasitised by Hyalomma spp. than R. sanguineus s.l.

Molecular detection and phylogenetic analysis of Leishmania major in stray dogs in Riyadh Province, Saudi Arabia

Dogs can act as a reservoir of canine leishmaniasis disease, which is caused by Leishmania species. The study aimed to identify and document the genotype of cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL) in the stray dogs in Riyadh Province using kinetoplast DNA (kDNA) as a target gene by using nested polymerase chain reaction (nPCR). This cross-sectional investigation was conducted over the course of two years, from March 2016 to July 2018, in different districts of Riyadh Province, Saudi Arabia. A total of 237 dogs were examined, only 18 of the dogs were suspected clinically of cutaneous leishmaniasis due to the presence of cutaneous nodules and cutaneous lesion. Biopsy tissue collections were performed and DNA was extracted. CSB2XF and CSB1XR primers were used to amplify the Leishmania kDNA regions. The Leishmania species were detected by specific 13Z and LIR primers by applying nested PCR assay. Nine dogs were found to be positive for Leishmania major. The examined dogs were negative for other Leishmania spp. The phylogenetic analysis and blast results of kDNA showed that the 9 isolates L. major is closely related (99.9%) to the L. major isolate CMG_irfan5, accession number HQ727556.1 from human, Pakistan. This is the first molecular study on dog leishmaniasis from Saudi Arabia confirmed that dogs have a L. major infection. Further epidemiological and molecular investigations are required to study domestic and wild canine infections with L. major and other Leishmania spp in endemic and nonendemic areas of Saudi Arabia as part of leishmaniasis control.

Potential role of dogs as sentinels and reservoirs for piroplasms infecting equine and cattle in Riyadh City, Saudi Arabia

Canine tick-borne diseases have been considered emerging and re-emerging threats, given their increasing global prevalence. In this molecular survey, we aimed to detect and identify common tick-borne pathogens in dogs from Riyadh city in Saudi Arabia. Initially, the study included 36 dogs visiting private veterinary clinics. PCRs targeting the 18S ribosomal RNA gene (rDNA) of haemoparasites (Babesia, Theileria and Hepatozoon) and the 16S rDNA of Anaplasmataceae were performed. The results showed that 26 (72.2%) dogs were infected by some of the haemoparasites under investigation. The sequencing analysis of the amplicons confirmed the infections due to two parasite species Theileria equi and Theileria velifera. Further examination of guard dogs kept in the horse stables of the Riyadh Municipality revealed that the majority of the tested dogs (65.2%: 30 out of 46) were infected with either of the parasites. In addition, the genotypes of all the parasites in these dogs were identical to those of the parasites in the dogs from the veterinary clinics. Thus, it can be concluded that dogs are infected with these haemoparasites and serve as a reservoir for both T. equi and T. velifera in the study area; however, the clinical implication of this finding is to be studied.

Non-invasive surveillance of Plasmodium infection by real-time PCR analysis of ethanol preserved faeces from Ugandan school children with intestinal schistosomiasis

Background

As part of ongoing co-surveillance of intestinal schistosomiasis and malaria in Ugandan school children, a non-invasive detection method for amplification of Plasmodium DNA using real-time (rt)PCR analysis of ethanol preserved faeces (EPF) was assessed. For diagnostic tabulations, results were compared to rtPCR analysis of dried blood spots (DBS) and field-based point-of-care (POC) rapid diagnostic tests (RDTs).

Methods

A total of 247 school children from 5 primary schools along the shoreline of Lake Albert were examined with matched EPF and DBS obtained. Mean prevalence and prevalence by school was calculated by detection of Plasmodium DNA by rtPCR using a 18S rDNA Taqman^® probe. Diagnostic sensitivity, specificity, positive and negative predictive values were tabulated and compared against RDTs.

Results

By rtPCR of EPF and DBS, 158 (63.9%; 95% CI 57.8–69.7) and 198 (80.1%, 95% CI 74.7–84.6) children were positive for Plasmodium spp. By RDT, 138 (55.8%; 95% CI 49.6–61.9) and 45 (18.2%; 95% CI 13.9–23.5) children were positive for Plasmodium falciparum, and with non-P. falciparum co-infections, respectively. Using RDT results as a convenient field-based reference, the sensitivity of rtPCR of EPF and DBS was 73.1% (95% CI 65.2–79.8) and 94.2% (95% CI 88.9–97.0) while specificity was 47.7% (95% CI 38.5–57.0) and 37.6% (95% CI 29.0–46.9), respectively. With one exception, school prevalence estimated by analysis of EPF was higher than that by RDT. Positive and negative predictive values were compared and discussed.

Conclusions

In this high transmission setting, EPF sampling with rtPCR analysis has satisfactory diagnostic performance in estimation of mean prevalence and prevalence by school upon direct comparison with POC-RDTs. Although analysis of EPF was judged inferior to that of DBS, it permits an alternative non-invasive sampling regime that could be implemented alongside general monitoring and surveillance for other faecal parasites. EPF analysis may also have future value in passive surveillance of low transmission settings.