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Elati K, Tajeri S, Mugo RM, Obara I, Darghouth MA, Zweygarth E, Nijhof AM. In vitro infection of bovine erythrocytes with Theileria annulata merozoites as a key step in completing the T. annulata life cycle in vitro. Sci Rep 2024; 14:3647. [PMID: 38351295 PMCID: PMC10864261 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-54327-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2023] [Accepted: 02/11/2024] [Indexed: 02/16/2024] Open
Abstract
Theileria annulata is a protozoan parasite with a complex life cycle involving a bovine host and a tick vector. It is transmitted by Hyalomma ticks and is the causative agent of tropical theileriosis, a debilitating and often fatal disease in southern Europe, northern Africa and large parts of Asia. Understanding the biology of different life cycle stages is critical for the control of tropical theileriosis and requires the use of experimental animals which poses an ethical concern. We present for the first time the in vitro infection of red blood cells (RBCs) with T. annulata differentiated schizonts. The Ankara cell line of T. annulata was cultured at 41 °C for nine days to induce merogony and subsequently incubated with purified RBCs for one to three days. Percentage of parasitized erythrocyte (PPE) over the short culture period was estimated by Giemsa staining (0.007-0.01%), Flow cytometry activated sorting (FACS) (0.02-1.1%) and observation of FACS sorted cells by confocal microscopy (0.05-0.4%). There was a significant difference in the PPE between FACS and the two other techniques (one-way ANOVA followed by Tukey test, P = 0.004) but no significant difference was observed between the confocal imaging and Giemsa staining methods (ANOVA one-way followed by Tukey test, P = 0.06). Importantly, all three complementary methods confirmed the invasion of RBCs by T. annulata merozoites in vitro. Although the experimental conditions will require further optimization to increase the PPE, the in vitro infection of RBCs by T. annulata merozoites is pivotal in paving the way for the eventual completion of the T. annulata life cycle in vitro when combined with artificial tick feeding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Khawla Elati
- Institute of Parasitology and Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Freie Universität Berlin, Robert-Von-Ostertag-Str. 7, 14163, Berlin, Germany.
- Veterinary Centre for Resistance Research, Freie Universität Berlin, Robert-Von-Ostertag-Str. 8, 14163, Berlin, Germany.
- Laboratoire de Parasitologie, École Nationale de Médecine Vétérinaire de Sidi Thabet, Institution de la Recherche et de l'Enseignement Supérieur Agricoles, Université de la Manouba, 2020, Sidi Thabet, Tunisia.
| | - Shahin Tajeri
- Institute of Parasitology and Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Freie Universität Berlin, Robert-Von-Ostertag-Str. 7, 14163, Berlin, Germany
- Veterinary Centre for Resistance Research, Freie Universität Berlin, Robert-Von-Ostertag-Str. 8, 14163, Berlin, Germany
| | - Robert M Mugo
- Institute of Immunology, Center for Infection Medicine, Freie Universtät Berlin, 14163, Berlin, Germany
| | - Isaiah Obara
- Institute of Parasitology and Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Freie Universität Berlin, Robert-Von-Ostertag-Str. 7, 14163, Berlin, Germany
- Veterinary Centre for Resistance Research, Freie Universität Berlin, Robert-Von-Ostertag-Str. 8, 14163, Berlin, Germany
| | - Mohamed Aziz Darghouth
- Laboratoire de Parasitologie, École Nationale de Médecine Vétérinaire de Sidi Thabet, Institution de la Recherche et de l'Enseignement Supérieur Agricoles, Université de la Manouba, 2020, Sidi Thabet, Tunisia
| | - Erich Zweygarth
- Institute of Parasitology and Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Freie Universität Berlin, Robert-Von-Ostertag-Str. 7, 14163, Berlin, Germany
- Department of Veterinary Tropical Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Ard Menzo Nijhof
- Institute of Parasitology and Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Freie Universität Berlin, Robert-Von-Ostertag-Str. 7, 14163, Berlin, Germany.
- Veterinary Centre for Resistance Research, Freie Universität Berlin, Robert-Von-Ostertag-Str. 8, 14163, Berlin, Germany.
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Elati K, Benyedem H, Fukatsu K, Hoffmann-Köhler P, Mhadhbi M, Bakırcı S, Bilgiç HB, Karagenç T, Darghouth MA, Nijhof AM. In vitro feeding of all life stages of two-host Hyalomma excavatum and Hyalomma scupense and three-host Hyalomma dromedarii ticks. Sci Rep 2024; 14:444. [PMID: 38172407 PMCID: PMC10764919 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-51052-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2023] [Accepted: 12/29/2023] [Indexed: 01/05/2024] Open
Abstract
Ticks are blood-sucking ectoparasites and can transmit various pathogens of medical and veterinary relevance. The life cycle of ticks can be completed under laboratory conditions on experimental animals, but the artificial feeding of ticks has attracted increased interest as an alternative method. This study represents the first report on the successful in vitro feeding of all life stages of two-host tick species, Hyalomma scupense and Hyalomma excavatum, and the three-host tick Hyalomma dromedarii. The attachment and engorgement rates of adults were 84% (21/25) and 76% (19/25) for H. scupense females. For adult H. excavatum and H. dromedarii, 70% (21/30) and 34.4% (11/32) of the females attached and all attached females successfully fed to repletion. The oviposition rates of the artificially fed females were 36.4%, 57.1% and 63.1% for H. dromedarii, H. excavatum and H. scupense, respectively, with a reproductive efficiency index varying between 44.3 and 60.7%. For the larvae, the attachment and engorgement rates were 44.2% (313/708) and 42.8% (303/708) for H. dromedarii, 70.5% (129/183) and 56.8% (104/183) for H. excavatum and 92.6% (113/122) and 55.7% (68/122) for H. scupense. The attachment and engorgement rates for the nymphs were 90.2% (129/143) and 47.6% (68/143) for H. dromedarii, 66.7% (34/51) and 41.2% (21/51) for H. excavatum, and 44.1% (30/68) and 36.8% (25/68) for H. scupense. Molting rates of the immature stages varied between 71.3% (216/303) and 100% (68/68) for the larvae and between 61.9% (13/21) and 96% (24/25) for the nymphs. The successful in vitro feeding of all stages of the three Hyalomma species makes this method a valuable tool for tick research, with potential applications in studies on the pathogens transmitted by these tick species such as Theileria annulata.
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Affiliation(s)
- Khawla Elati
- Institute of Parasitology and Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Freie Universität Berlin, Robert-Von-Ostertag-Str. 7, 14163, Berlin, Germany.
- Veterinary Centre for Resistance Research, Freie Universität Berlin, Robert-Von-Ostertag-Str. 8, 14163, Berlin, Germany.
- Laboratoire de Parasitologie, École Nationale de MédecineVétérinaire de SidiThabet, Institution de la Recherche et de l'Enseignement Supérieur Agricoles, Univ. Manouba, 2020 Sidi Thabet, Tunisia, Univ. Manouba, Sidi Thabet, Tunisia.
| | - Hayet Benyedem
- Laboratoire de Parasitologie, École Nationale de MédecineVétérinaire de SidiThabet, Institution de la Recherche et de l'Enseignement Supérieur Agricoles, Univ. Manouba, 2020 Sidi Thabet, Tunisia, Univ. Manouba, Sidi Thabet, Tunisia
| | - Kohsuke Fukatsu
- Institute of Parasitology and Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Freie Universität Berlin, Robert-Von-Ostertag-Str. 7, 14163, Berlin, Germany
- Research Center, Nihon Nohyaku Co., Ltd., Osaka, Japan
| | - Peggy Hoffmann-Köhler
- Institute of Parasitology and Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Freie Universität Berlin, Robert-Von-Ostertag-Str. 7, 14163, Berlin, Germany
| | - Moez Mhadhbi
- Laboratoire de Parasitologie, École Nationale de MédecineVétérinaire de SidiThabet, Institution de la Recherche et de l'Enseignement Supérieur Agricoles, Univ. Manouba, 2020 Sidi Thabet, Tunisia, Univ. Manouba, Sidi Thabet, Tunisia
| | - Serkan Bakırcı
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Parasitology, Aydın Adnan Menderes University, Isıklı‑Efeler, Aydın, Turkey
| | - Hüseyin Bilgin Bilgiç
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Parasitology, Aydın Adnan Menderes University, Isıklı‑Efeler, Aydın, Turkey
| | - Tülin Karagenç
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Parasitology, Aydın Adnan Menderes University, Isıklı‑Efeler, Aydın, Turkey
| | - Mohamed Aziz Darghouth
- Laboratoire de Parasitologie, École Nationale de MédecineVétérinaire de SidiThabet, Institution de la Recherche et de l'Enseignement Supérieur Agricoles, Univ. Manouba, 2020 Sidi Thabet, Tunisia, Univ. Manouba, Sidi Thabet, Tunisia
| | - Ard M Nijhof
- Institute of Parasitology and Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Freie Universität Berlin, Robert-Von-Ostertag-Str. 7, 14163, Berlin, Germany.
- Veterinary Centre for Resistance Research, Freie Universität Berlin, Robert-Von-Ostertag-Str. 8, 14163, Berlin, Germany.
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Bilgiç HB, Hacilarlioğlu S, Pekağirbaş M, Karagenç T, Eren H, Bakirci S. In vitro feeding of Hyalomma excavatum and Hyalomma marginatum tick species. Parasitol Res 2023:10.1007/s00436-023-07867-7. [PMID: 37178257 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-023-07867-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2023] [Accepted: 05/08/2023] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
The rearing of ticks is an important technique for studies aiming to elucidate the course and pathogenesis of tick-borne diseases (TBDs). TBDs caused by protozoans (Theileria, Babesia) and bacteria (Anaplasma/Ehrlichia) impose a serious constraint upon livestock health and production in tropical and sub-tropical regions where the distributions of host, pathogen, and vector overlap. This study focuses on Hyalomma marginatum, one of the most important Hyalomma species in the Mediterranean region, being a vector of the virus that causes Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever in humans, together with H. excavatum, a vector of Theileria annulata, an important protozoan of cattle. The adaptation of ticks to feeding on artificial membranes allows the creation of model systems that can be put to use examining the underlying mechanisms of pathogen transmission by ticks. Silicone membranes, in particular, offer researchers the flexibility to adjust membrane thickness and content during artificial feeding. The aim of the present study was to develop an artificial feeding technique using silicone-based membranes for all developmental stages of H. excavatum and H. marginatum ticks. Attachment rates after feeding on silicone membranes for females H. marginatum and H. excavatum were 8.33% (8/96) and 7.95% (7/88), respectively. The use of cow hair as a stimulant increased the attachment rate of H. marginatum adults in comparison to other stimulants. The engorgement of H. marginatum and H. excavatum females took 20.5 and 23 days with average weights of 307.85 and 260.64 mg, respectively. Although both tick species could complete egg-laying, and this was followed by hatching of larvae; their larvae and nymphs could not be fed artificially. Taken together, the results of the present study clearly indicate that silicone membranes are suitable for feeding of H. excavatum and H. marginatum adult ticks, supporting engorgement, laying of eggs, and hatching of the larvae. They thus represent a versatile tool for studying transmission mechanisms of tick-borne pathogens. Further studies are warranted to examine attachment and feeding behaviours in order to increase the success of artificial feeding of larvae and nymphal stages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hüseyin Bilgin Bilgiç
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Parasitology, Aydın Adnan Menderes University, Isıklı-Efeler, Aydın, Türkiye
| | - Selin Hacilarlioğlu
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Parasitology, Aydın Adnan Menderes University, Isıklı-Efeler, Aydın, Türkiye
| | - Metin Pekağirbaş
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Parasitology, Aydın Adnan Menderes University, Isıklı-Efeler, Aydın, Türkiye
| | - Tülin Karagenç
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Parasitology, Aydın Adnan Menderes University, Isıklı-Efeler, Aydın, Türkiye
| | - Hasan Eren
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Parasitology, Aydın Adnan Menderes University, Isıklı-Efeler, Aydın, Türkiye
| | - Serkan Bakirci
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Parasitology, Aydın Adnan Menderes University, Isıklı-Efeler, Aydın, Türkiye.
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Afshari A, Habibi G, Abdigoudarzi M, Yazdani F. Establishment and Validation of Theileria annulata Sporozoite Ak-93 Infection in Laboratory-Reared Hyalomma anatolicum Tick Using In Vivo and In Vitro Assays. J Arthropod Borne Dis 2021; 14:261-269. [PMID: 33644239 PMCID: PMC7903359 DOI: 10.18502/jad.v14i3.4559] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2019] [Accepted: 09/27/2020] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Tropical Theileriosis caused by Theileria annulata is a tick-borne disease which transmitted by the ixodid tick members of the genus Hyalomma. Studies on different aspects of disease require to access infective sporozoite of parasite which produced by tick vector. This study was carried out to establish of T. annulata life cycle to achieve T. annulata infected ticks. Methods: Laboratory rabbit and calf were used for rearing of Hyalomma anatolicum different instars. Unfed nymphs were fed on T. annulata infected calf. Clinical signs, Giemsa stained smears and Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) methods were used for detection of infection in blood and tick specimens. Susceptible calf was used for confirmation of sporozoites maturation and infectivity in bioassay test. Results: Hyalomma anatolicum two and three-host strategies of life cycle was lasted 90 and 116 days respectively. The PCR confirmed T. annulata infection in blood and tick samples. Maturation of T. annulata sporozoites was confirmed in bioassy test. First clinical symptom of disease was seen earlier in the case of transmission of disease through feeding of live ticks in comparison with blood injection method. Conclusion: Complete life cycle of T. annulata was done and confirmed by clinical signs, microscopic examination, molecular methods and bioassay test. According to published reports to date, this is the first report of establishment of H. anatolicum tick infection with T. annulata using susceptible calf under controlled conditions in Iran.
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Affiliation(s)
- Asghar Afshari
- Department of Parasitic Vaccines Research and Production, Razi Vaccine and Serum Research Institute, Agricultural Research Education and Extension Organization (AREEO), Karaj, Iran
| | - Gholamreza Habibi
- Department of Parasitic Vaccines Research and Production, Razi Vaccine and Serum Research Institute, Agricultural Research Education and Extension Organization (AREEO), Karaj, Iran
| | - Mohammad Abdigoudarzi
- Department of Parasitology, Razi Vaccine and Serum Research institute, Agricultural Research Education and Extension Organization (AREEO), Karaj, Iran
| | - Fereshteh Yazdani
- Department of Brucellosis, Razi Vaccine and Serum Research Institute, Agricultural Research, Education and Organization Extension (AREEO), Karaj, Iran
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González J, Bickerton M, Toledo A. Applications of artificial membrane feeding for ixodid ticks. Acta Trop 2021; 215:105818. [PMID: 33406442 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2020.105818] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2020] [Revised: 12/23/2020] [Accepted: 12/24/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Ticks are obligatory hematophagous ectoparasites that feed on a large variety of vertebrates. In the laboratory, animals (mainly mice and rabbits) are used to maintain tick colonies. However, the use of animals to rear ticks can be expensive and requires dedicated animal facilities. In addition, research institutions are committed to the principle of 3Rs (Replacement, Reduction and Refinement), which encourages the use of alternatives to animals when possible. The development of artificial membrane systems has provided an alternative to animals, at least for some tick species. Over the years, different modifications in artificial feeding systems have led to new applications, including acaricide testing, tick-pathogen interaction, and novel approaches to study tick physiology. Although artificial membrane feeding still has some limitations, the method can provide numerous advantages, including the standardization of acaricide treatments under controlled conditions, an alternative to animals for tick rearing, and reduction of cost associated with animals and animal housing facilities. In this review, we summarized the evolution of tick feeding membranes and their applications over time, explaining the modifications incorporated to study tick physiology, tick-pathogen interactions, and acaricide testing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia González
- Center for Vector Biology, Department of Entomology, Rutgers University, 180 Jones Ave, New Brunswick, NJ 08901, USA
| | - Mathew Bickerton
- Center for Vector Biology, Department of Entomology, Rutgers University, 180 Jones Ave, New Brunswick, NJ 08901, USA; Bergen County Department of Health, Division of Environmental Health, 220 East Ridgewood Avenue, Paramus, NJ 07652, USA
| | - Alvaro Toledo
- Center for Vector Biology, Department of Entomology, Rutgers University, 180 Jones Ave, New Brunswick, NJ 08901, USA.
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Kumar B, Manjunathachar HV, Ghosh S. A review on Hyalomma species infestations on human and animals and progress on management strategies. Heliyon 2020; 6:e05675. [PMID: 33319114 PMCID: PMC7726666 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e05675] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2020] [Revised: 09/23/2020] [Accepted: 12/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The Hyalomma species of ticks have gained additional attention due to their role in the transmission of Theileria annulata infection in animals and the Crimean-Congo Haemorrhagic Fever (CCHF) virus in humans. Apart from these, many other pathogens viz., other species of Theileria, a few species of Babesia, Rickettsia and viruses are either maintained or transmitted by this tick species. The medium to large size species with longer proboscis has inflicted additional burden on the overall impact of tick infestations. Being a multi-host species, management of the species is very challenging. Presently, the traditional method of tick management using chemical acaricides is found insufficient and unsustainable. Henceforth, the overall burden of tick infestations and tick-borne diseases are increasing gradually. After the successful development of vaccines against cattle tick, Rhipicephalus microplus, the anti-Hyalomma vaccine is considered a feasible and sustainable management option. In the recent past research on herbal acaricides and its possible application for tick control seems promising. Other eco-friendly methods are still under experimental stage. The present review is focused on impact of Hyalomma species infestation on human and animal health with special emphasis on progress on its sustainable management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Binod Kumar
- Department of Veterinary Parasitology, College of Veterinary Science & Animal Husbandry, Junagadh Agricultural University, Junagadh 362001, Gujarat, India
| | | | - Srikanta Ghosh
- Entomology Laboratory, Division of Parasitology, ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute (IVRI), Izatnagar, 243122, Bareilly, India
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Olivieri E, Wijnveld M, Bonga M, Berger L, Manfredi MT, Veronesi F, Jongejan F. Transmission of Rickettsia raoultii and Rickettsia massiliae DNA by Dermacentor reticulatus and Rhipicephalus sanguineus (s.l.) ticks during artificial feeding. Parasit Vectors 2018; 11:494. [PMID: 30176918 PMCID: PMC6122679 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-018-3075-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2018] [Accepted: 08/23/2018] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Tick-borne rickettsial pathogens are emerging worldwide and pose an increased health risk to both humans and animals. A plethora of rickettsial species has been identified in ticks recovered from human and animal patients. However, the detection of rickettsial DNA in ticks does not necessarily mean that these ticks can act as vectors for these pathogens. Here, we used artificial feeding of ticks to confirm transmission of Rickettsia massiliae and Rickettsia raoultii by Rhipicephalus sanguineus (sensu lato) and Dermacentor reticulatus ticks, respectively. The speed of transmission was also determined. Methods An artificial feeding system based on silicone membranes were used to feed adult R. sanguineus (s.l.) and D. reticulatus ticks. Blood samples from in vitro feeding units were analysed for the presence of rickettsial DNA using PCR and reverse line blot hybridisation. Results The attachment rate of R. sanguineus (s.l.) ticks were 40.4% at 8 h post-application, increasing to 70.2% at 72 h. Rickettsia massiliae was detected in blood samples collected 8 h after the R. sanguineus (s.l.) ticks were placed into the in vitro feeding units. D. reticulatus ticks were pre-fed on sheep and subsequently transferred to the in vitro feeding system. The attachment rate was 29.1 % at 24 h post-application, increasing to 43.6 % at 96 h. Rickettsia raoultii was detected in blood collected 24 h after D. reticulatus was placed into the feeding units. Conclusions Rhipicephalus sanguineus (s.l.) and D. reticulatus ticks are vectors of R. massiliae and R. raoultii, respectively. The transmission of R. massiliae as early as 8 h after tick attachment emphasises the importance of removing ticks as soon as possible to minimise transmission. This study highlights the relevance of in vitro feeding systems to provide insight into the vectorial capacity of ticks and the dynamics of tick-borne pathogen transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emanuela Olivieri
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Perugia, 06126, Perugia, Italy.,Utrecht Centre for Tick-borne Diseases, FAO Reference Centre for Ticks and Tick-borne Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Yalelaan 1, 3584 CL, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Michiel Wijnveld
- Institute for Hygiene and Applied Immunology, Center for Pathophysiology, Infectiology and Immunology, Medical University of Vienna, Kinderspitalgasse 15, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Marise Bonga
- Utrecht Centre for Tick-borne Diseases, FAO Reference Centre for Ticks and Tick-borne Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Yalelaan 1, 3584 CL, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Laura Berger
- Utrecht Centre for Tick-borne Diseases, FAO Reference Centre for Ticks and Tick-borne Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Yalelaan 1, 3584 CL, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Maria T Manfredi
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Università degli Studi di Milano, 20133, Milan, Italy
| | - Fabrizia Veronesi
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Perugia, 06126, Perugia, Italy
| | - Frans Jongejan
- Utrecht Centre for Tick-borne Diseases, FAO Reference Centre for Ticks and Tick-borne Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Yalelaan 1, 3584 CL, Utrecht, The Netherlands. .,Vectors and Vector-borne Diseases Research Programme, Department of Veterinary Tropical Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, Private Bag X04, Onderstepoort, 0110, South Africa.
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Romano D, Stefanini C, Canale A, Benelli G. Artificial blood feeders for mosquito and ticks-Where from, where to? Acta Trop 2018; 183:43-56. [PMID: 29625092 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2018.04.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2018] [Revised: 03/12/2018] [Accepted: 04/01/2018] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Mosquito and tick feeding activity represent a key threat for humans, livestock, pets and wildlife worldwide. Rearing these vectors in laboratory conditions is extremely important to investigate basic facets of their biology, vector competence, new control strategies, as well as mechanisms of pesticide resistance. However, the use of animals or humans to provide blood for hematophagous arthropod feeding poses a strict limit to these researches, due to the accidental transmission of diseases, ethical problems concerning animal welfare, as well as expensive and time-consuming animal rearing procedures. The use of devices to artificially feed arthropod vectors can importantly leverage progresses in parasitology and entomology. The aim of this review is to summarize current knowledge about artificial feeding of mosquitoes and ticks, focusing on key concepts and case studies about the design and fabrication of blood feeding devices. From a technical standpoint, the literature analyzed here showed little standardization of materials used for fabricating membrane interfaces, as well as in the strategy used to heat the "biomimetic host". In addition, a lack of uniform methods to design an architecture merging complex and realistic cues with an easy-to-assemble approach have been found. Some commercial products are available, but they are quite expensive, thus hard to reach for many laboratories, especially in developing countries. An important challenge for future research is represented by the introduction of automation and bioinspired engineered solutions in these devices, improving the effectiveness of blood-feeding systems by increasing their host-mimicking features. Automation can reduce labor costs and provide interesting solutions - in line with the 3R principle "reduce, replace and refine" - aimed to minimize the employ of experimental animals in research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Donato Romano
- The BioRobotics Institute, Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies, viale Rinaldo Piaggio 34, 56025 Pontedera, Pisa, Italy
| | - Cesare Stefanini
- The BioRobotics Institute, Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies, viale Rinaldo Piaggio 34, 56025 Pontedera, Pisa, Italy; Department of Biomedical Engineering and Robotics Institute, Khalifa University, PO Box 127788, Abu Dhabi, UAE
| | - Angelo Canale
- Department of Agriculture, Food and Environment, University of Pisa, via del Borghetto 80, 56124 Pisa, Italy
| | - Giovanni Benelli
- The BioRobotics Institute, Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies, viale Rinaldo Piaggio 34, 56025 Pontedera, Pisa, Italy; Department of Agriculture, Food and Environment, University of Pisa, via del Borghetto 80, 56124 Pisa, Italy.
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9
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Suppan J, Engel B, Marchetti-Deschmann M, Nürnberger S. Tick attachment cement - reviewing the mysteries of a biological skin plug system. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2018; 93:1056-1076. [PMID: 29119723 PMCID: PMC5947171 DOI: 10.1111/brv.12384] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2017] [Revised: 10/10/2017] [Accepted: 10/12/2017] [Indexed: 11/14/2022]
Abstract
The majority of ticks in the family Ixodidae secrete a substance anchoring their mouthparts to the host skin. This substance is termed cement. It has adhesive properties and seals the lesion during feeding. The particular chemical composition and the curing process of the cement are unclear. This review summarizes the literature, starting with a historical overview, briefly introducing the different hypotheses on the origin of the adhesive and how the tick salivary glands have been identified as its source. Details on the sequence of cement deposition, the curing process and detachment are provided. Other possible functions of the cement, such as protection from the host immune system and antimicrobial properties, are presented. Histochemical and ultrastructural data of the intracellular granules in the salivary gland cells, as well as the secreted cement, suggest that proteins constitute the main material, with biochemical data revealing glycine to be the dominant amino acid. Applied methods and their restrictions are discussed. Tick cement is compared with adhesives of other animals such as barnacles, mussels and sea urchins. Finally, we address the potential of tick cement for the field of biomaterial research and in particular for medical applications in future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johannes Suppan
- Department of Trauma Surgery, Austrian Cluster for Tissue Regeneration, Medical University of Vienna, Währinger Gürtel 18-20, A-1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Benedikt Engel
- Institute of Chemical Technologies and Analytics, TU Wien, Getreidemarkt 9/164, A-1060, Vienna, Austria
| | | | - Sylvia Nürnberger
- Department of Trauma Surgery, Austrian Cluster for Tissue Regeneration, Medical University of Vienna, Währinger Gürtel 18-20, A-1090, Vienna, Austria
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10
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Groff K, Bishop P. Itching for change: Embracing modern flea and tick product development. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2017; 88:349-355. [PMID: 28689745 DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2017.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2017] [Accepted: 07/05/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
The development and regulatory approval of ectoparasiticides, including flea and tick control products, involves decades-old methods and the use of large numbers of animals to evaluate toxicity and efficacy. Animals also are used to rear (breed and feed) fleas and ticks for later use in testing. Non-animal methods for regulatory-required testing and rearing currently exist and, with further development, others could soon become available. Here we provide an overview of the state-of-the-science of non-animal methods for rearing and regulatory-required efficacy testing of flea and tick control products. Several remaining challenges as well as recommendations on the steps needed to replace animals in the evaluation of these products are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine Groff
- People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals, 501 Front Street, Norfolk, VA, 23510, United States.
| | - Patricia Bishop
- People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals, 501 Front Street, Norfolk, VA, 23510, United States.
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11
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González J, Valcárcel F, Aguilar A, Olmeda AS. In vitro feeding of Hyalomma lusitanicum ticks on artificial membranes. EXPERIMENTAL & APPLIED ACAROLOGY 2017; 72:449-459. [PMID: 28840366 DOI: 10.1007/s10493-017-0167-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2017] [Accepted: 08/14/2017] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
In vitro feeding of ticks (Acari: Ixodidae) is an important means to study the biology of ticks and their vectorial capacity. Here, we have adapted the tick Hyalomma lusitanicum Koch to previously published silicone-based membranes for in vitro feeding. For comparison purposes data on pre-oviposition, oviposition and hatching from females engorged on animals were used. A total of 68 engorged females out of 169 were obtained; feeding duration and feeding behaviour were similar to that of ticks on live host animals, although the final weight achieved for membrane-fed ticks was lower than that of their animal-fed counterparts. Comparison of the time taken for egg production and hatching showed that pre-oviposition was faster for membrane-fed ticks (16 days) than for animal-fed ticks (36 days), whereas the duration of oviposition-hatching was the same for the two feeding methods (34 days). We also observed that seasonality has an influence on tick feeding success: the conditions in Spring/Summer accelerated the tick life cycle. It is concluded that relatively large numbers of homogeneous laboratory-raised Hyalomma ticks can be produced without feeding them on experimental animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- J González
- Villamagna SA, Finca "La Garganta", 14440, Villanueva de Córdoba, Córdoba, Spain
| | - F Valcárcel
- Grupo de Parasitología Animal, Animalario del Departamento de Reproducción Animal, Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Tecnología Agria y Alimentaria (INIA), 28040, Madrid, Spain.
| | - A Aguilar
- Grupo de Parasitología Animal, Animalario del Departamento de Reproducción Animal, Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Tecnología Agria y Alimentaria (INIA), 28040, Madrid, Spain
| | - A S Olmeda
- Departamento de Sanidad Animal, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, 28040, Madrid, Spain
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12
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Tajeri S, Razmi G, Haghparast A. Establishment of an Artificial Tick Feeding System to Study Theileria lestoquardi Infection. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0169053. [PMID: 28036364 PMCID: PMC5201281 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0169053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2016] [Accepted: 12/09/2016] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The establishment of good experimental models for Theileria sp. infection is important for theileriosis research. Routinely, infection of ticks is accomplished by feeding on parasite-infected animals (sheep, cows and horses), which raises practical and ethical problems, driving the search for alternative methods of tick infection. Artificial tick feeding systems are based mainly on rearing ticks on host-derived or hand-made artificial membranes. We developed a modified feeding assay for infecting nymphal stages of Hyalomma anatolicum ticks with Theileria lestoquardi, a highly pathogenic parasite of sheep. We compared two different membranes: an artificial silicone membrane and a natural alternative using mouse skin. We observed high attachment rates with mouse skin, whereas in vitro feeding of H. anatolicum nymphs on silicone membranes was unsuccessful. We could infect H. anatolicum nymphs with T. lestoquardi and the emerging adult ticks transmitted infective parasites to sheep. In contrast, similar infections with Rhipicephalus bursa, a representative tick with short mouth-parts that was proposed as a vector for T. lestoquardi, appeared not to be a competent vector tick species. This is the first report of an experimentally controlled infection of H. anatolicum with T. lestoquardi and opens avenues to explore tick-parasite dynamics in detail.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shahin Tajeri
- Department of Pathobiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Gholamreza Razmi
- Department of Pathobiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran
- * E-mail:
| | - Alireza Haghparast
- Department of Pathobiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran
- Veterinary Biotechnology Research Group, Institute of Biotechnology, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran
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Williams H, Zoller H, Roepke RKA, Zschiesche E, Heckeroth AR. Fluralaner activity against life stages of ticks using Rhipicephalus sanguineus and Ornithodoros moubata IN in vitro contact and feeding assays. Parasit Vectors 2015; 8:90. [PMID: 25888750 PMCID: PMC4326483 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-015-0704-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2014] [Accepted: 01/28/2015] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Fluralaner is a novel isoxazoline eliciting both acaricidal and insecticidal activity through potent blockage of GABA- and glutamate-gated chloride channels. The aim of the study was to investigate the susceptibility of juvenile stages of common tick species exposed to fluralaner through either contact (Rhipicephalus sanguineus) or contact and feeding routes (Ornithodoros moubata). Methods Fluralaner acaricidal activity through both contact and feeding exposure was measured in vitro using two separate testing protocols. Acaricidal contact activity against Rhipicephalus sanguineus life stages was assessed using three minute immersion in fluralaner concentrations between 50 and 0.05 μg/mL (larvae) or between 1000 and 0.2 μg/mL (nymphs and adults). Contact and feeding activity against Ornithodoros moubata nymphs was assessed using fluralaner concentrations between 1000 to 10−4 μg/mL (contact test) and 0.1 to 10−10 μg/mL (feeding test). Activity was assessed 48 hours after exposure and all tests included vehicle and untreated negative control groups. Results Fluralaner lethal concentrations (LC50, LC90/95) were defined as concentrations with either 50%, 90% or 95% killing effect in the tested sample population. After contact exposure of R. sanguineus life stages lethal concentrations were (μg/mL): larvae - LC50 0.7, LC90 2.4; nymphs - LC50 1.4, LC90 2.6; and adults - LC50 278, LC90 1973. After exposure of O. moubata nymphs to fluralaner lethal concentrations were (μg/mL): contact exposure - LC50 720, LC95 1133; and feeding exposure- LC50 0.00007, LC95 0.09. Conclusions Fluralaner demonstrates potent in vitro acaricidal activity against all life stages of the brown dog tick, R.sanguineus. The testing of fluralaner contact and feeding routes using O. moubata nymphs demonstrates a high acaricidal activity in both exposure routes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heike Williams
- MSD Animal Health Innovation GmbH, Research Antiparasitics, Zur Propstei, 55270, Schwabenheim, Germany.
| | - Hartmut Zoller
- MSD Animal Health Innovation GmbH, Research Antiparasitics, Zur Propstei, 55270, Schwabenheim, Germany.
| | - Rainer K A Roepke
- MSD Animal Health Innovation GmbH, Research Antiparasitics, Zur Propstei, 55270, Schwabenheim, Germany.
| | - Eva Zschiesche
- MSD Animal Health Innovation GmbH, Research Antiparasitics, Zur Propstei, 55270, Schwabenheim, Germany.
| | - Anja R Heckeroth
- MSD Animal Health Innovation GmbH, Research Antiparasitics, Zur Propstei, 55270, Schwabenheim, Germany.
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Fourie JJ, Stanneck D, Luus HG, Beugnet F, Wijnveld M, Jongejan F. Transmission of Ehrlichia canis by Rhipicephalus sanguineus ticks feeding on dogs and on artificial membranes. Vet Parasitol 2013; 197:595-603. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2013.07.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2013] [Revised: 07/07/2013] [Accepted: 07/15/2013] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Hatta T, Miyoshi T, Matsubayashi M, Islam MK, Alim MA, Anisuzzaman, Yamaji K, Fujisaki K, Tsuji N. Semi-artificial mouse skin membrane feeding technique for adult tick, Haemaphysalis longicornis. Parasit Vectors 2012; 5:263. [PMID: 23153119 PMCID: PMC3514109 DOI: 10.1186/1756-3305-5-263] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2012] [Accepted: 10/11/2012] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND An in vitro artificial feeding technique for hard ticks is quite useful for studying the tick-pathogen interactions. Here, we report a novel semi-artificial feeding technique for the adult parthenogenetic tick, Haemaphysalis longicornis, using mouse skin membrane. FINDINGS Skin with attached adult ticks was removed from the mouse body at 4 to 5 days post-infestation for the construction of the feeding system. This system supplied with rabbit blood was kept in >95% relative humidity at 30°C during the feeding, and ticks were fully engorged (artificially engorged, AE) within 12 to 48 h. For comparison, ticks were fed to engorgement solely on rabbit or mouse for 5 days as controls (naturally engorged on rabbit, NEr, or mouse, NEm). Blood digestion-related gene expression in the midgut and reproductive fitness were compared. Body weight, egg mass weight, egg conversion ratio, and hatchability of eggs did not show any significant differences. We analyzed transcription profiles of selected genes assayed by quantitative RT-PCR and revealed similar patterns of expression between NEr and AE but some differences between NEm and AE or NEm and NEr. CONCLUSIONS Our results demonstrate that this semi-artificial feeding technique mimics natural feeding processes of ticks and can be utilized as a standardized method to inoculate pathogens, especially Babesia protozoa, into H. longicornis and possibly other tick species as well.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takeshi Hatta
- Laboratory of Parasitic Diseases, National Institute of Animal Health, National Agricultural and Food Research Organization, 3-1-5 Kannondai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-0856, Japan
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