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Tahir Aleem M, Munir F, Shakoor A, Ud Din Sindhu Z, Gao F. Advancement in the development of DNA vaccines against Trypanosoma brucei and future perspective. Int Immunopharmacol 2024; 140:112847. [PMID: 39088922 DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2024.112847] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2024] [Revised: 07/22/2024] [Accepted: 07/29/2024] [Indexed: 08/03/2024]
Abstract
Trypanosomes are the extracellular protozoan parasites that cause human African trypanosomiasis disease in humans and nagana disease in animals. Tsetse flies act as a vector for the transmission of the disease in African countries. Animals infected with these parasites become useless or workless, and if not treated, disease can be fatal. There are many side effects associated with old treatments and some of them result in death in 5% of cases. There is a major surface glycoprotein in the parasite known as variant surface glycoprotein. The immune system of the host develops antibodies against this antigen but due to antigenic variation, parasites evade the immune response. Currently, no vaccine is available that provides complete protection. In murine models, only partial protection was observed using certain antigens. In order to develop vaccines against trypanosomes, molecular biology and immunology tools have been used. Immunization is the sole method for the control of disease because the eradication of the vector from endemic areas is an impossible task. Genetic vaccines can carry multiple genes encoding different antigens of the same parasite or different parasites. DNA immunization induces the activation of both cellular immune response and humoral immune response along with the generation of memory. This review highlights the importance of DNA vaccines and advances in the development of DNA vaccines against T. brucei.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Tahir Aleem
- Department of Pharmacology, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou 515041, China; Center for Gene Regulation in Health and Disease, Department of Biological, Geological, and Environmental Sciences, College of Sciences and Health Professions, Cleveland State University, Cleveland, OH 44115, USA.
| | - Furqan Munir
- Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad 38040, Pakistan
| | - Amna Shakoor
- Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad 9, 38040, Pakistan
| | - Zia Ud Din Sindhu
- Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad 38040, Pakistan
| | - Fenfei Gao
- Department of Pharmacology, Shantou University Medical College, Shantou 515041, China.
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Jiang M, Zhou C, Wang S, Liu L, Zhang S, Wang L, Pan X. Identification of a Tetrahymena species infecting guppies, pathology, and expression of beta-tubulin during infection. Parasitol Res 2024; 123:104. [PMID: 38240890 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-024-08117-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2023] [Accepted: 01/04/2024] [Indexed: 01/23/2024]
Abstract
Tetrahymenosis is caused by the ciliated protozoan Tetrahymena and is responsible for serious economic losses to the aquaculture industry worldwide. However, information regarding the molecular mechanism leading to tetrahymenosis is limited. In previous transcriptome sequencing work, it was found that one of the two β-tubulin genes in T. pyriformis was significantly expressed in infected fish, we speculated that β-tubulin is involved in T. pyriformis infecting fish. Herein, the potential biological function of the β-tubulin gene in Tetrahymena species when establishing infection in guppies was investigated by cloning the full-length cDNA of this T. pyriformis β-tubulin (BTU1) gene. The full-length cDNA of T. pyriformis BTU1 gene was 1873 bp, and the ORF occupied 1134 bp, whereas 5' UTR 434 bp, and 3' UTR 305 bp whose poly (A) tail contained 12 bases. The predicted protein encoded by T. pyriformis BTU1 gene had a calculated molecular weight of 42.26 kDa and pI of 4.48. Moreover, secondary structure analysis and tertiary structure prediction of BTU1 protein were also conducted. In addition, morphology, infraciliature, phylogeny, and histopathology of T. pyriformis isolated from guppies from a fish market in Harbin were also investigated. Furthermore, qRT-PCR analysis and experimental infection assays indicated that the expression of BTU1 gene resulted in efficient cell proliferation during infection. Collectively, our data revealed that BTU1 is a key gene involved in T. pyriformis infection in guppies, and the findings discussed herein provide valuable insights for future studies on tetrahymenosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mingyue Jiang
- Laboratory of Protozoology, Harbin Normal University, Harbin, 150025, China
| | - Chunyu Zhou
- Laboratory of Protozoology, Harbin Normal University, Harbin, 150025, China
| | - Sihan Wang
- Laboratory of Protozoology, Harbin Normal University, Harbin, 150025, China
| | - Lihui Liu
- Laboratory of Protozoology, Harbin Normal University, Harbin, 150025, China
| | - Shuixian Zhang
- Panzhou No.4 Primary School, Panzhou, 553599, Guizhou Province, China
| | - Li Wang
- Laboratory of Protozoology, Harbin Normal University, Harbin, 150025, China
| | - Xuming Pan
- Laboratory of Protozoology, Harbin Normal University, Harbin, 150025, China.
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Jawalagatti V, Kirthika P, Singh P, Vinodhkumar OR, Buddhi Chandrasekaran S, Chittlangia RK, Tewari AK. Expression kinetics of cytokines and the humoral antibody response concerning short-term protection induced by radiation-attenuated Trypanosoma evansi in bovine calves. Vaccine 2023; 41:1668-1678. [PMID: 36746738 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2023.01.046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2022] [Revised: 01/19/2023] [Accepted: 01/21/2023] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
'Surra', an economically important disease of livestock, is caused by the parasitic blood protozoon Trypanosoma evansi. Both innate and adaptive immunity contribute to the protection against this infection. T-helper cells play a crucial role in the antibody-mediated clearance of T. evansi. We present here the data on the kinetics of expression of important Th1, Th2 and Th17 cytokines, vis-a-vis the dynamics of humoral response in bovine calves following immunization with γ-radiation-attenuated live T. evansi and later challenged with homologous virulent T. evansi. Significant upregulation of the pro-inflammatory Th1 and Th17 cytokines was correlated with the IgG2-mediated protection in the immunized bovine calves post-challenge. The calves were immunized with 5 × 106 500 Gy γ-radiation-attenuated live T. evansi (horse isolate) thrice at 15 days intervals through the subcutaneous route and subsequently, challenged with 1 × 103 virulent T. evansi on day 50. Significantly high serum IgG (1:1600) and IgM (1:800) titres were recorded on week 2 PC, whereas the peak serum IgG2 titre (1:800) was recorded on week 6 PC. Significant upregulation of IFN-γ, TNF, IL-1β, and IL-2 was recorded between days 1 to 3 PC, while the same for IL-17 was recorded on day 14 PC. The immunized calves were free from parasitemia post-challenge and were clinically healthy till the end of the experiment. Significant upregulation of IL-10 and IL-4 transcripts and a corresponding increase of serum IgG1 titre in the placebo group helped patency of the parasite in an anti-inflammatory environment and clinical exacerbation of the disease. The expression of the important Th1 cytokines was crucial for antibody-mediated short-term protection against a lethal challenge of T. evansi in cattle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vijayakumar Jawalagatti
- Division of Parasitology, ICAR- Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar-243 122, India
| | - Perumalraja Kirthika
- Division of Animal Biochemistry, ICAR- Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar-243 122, India
| | - Praveen Singh
- Division of Animal Biochemistry, ICAR- Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar-243 122, India; Biophysics Section, ICAR- Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar-243 122, India
| | - O R Vinodhkumar
- Divison of Epidemiology, ICAR- Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar-243 122, India
| | | | | | - Anup Kumar Tewari
- Division of Parasitology, ICAR- Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar-243 122, India.
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Kangethe RT, Winger EM, Settypalli TBK, Datta S, Wijewardana V, Lamien CE, Unger H, Coetzer TH, Cattoli G, Diallo A. Low Dose Gamma Irradiation of Trypanosoma evansi Parasites Identifies Molecular Changes That Occur to Repair Radiation Damage and Gene Transcripts That May Be Involved in Establishing Disease in Mice Post-Irradiation. Front Immunol 2022; 13:852091. [PMID: 35634275 PMCID: PMC9136415 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.852091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2022] [Accepted: 04/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
The protozoan parasite Trypanosoma evansi is responsible for causing surra in a variety of mammalian hosts and is spread by many vectors over a wide geographical area making it an ideal target for irradiation as a tool to study the initial events that occur during infection. Parasites irradiated at the representative doses 100Gy, 140Gy, and 200Gy were used to inoculate BALB/c mice revealing that parasites irradiated at 200Gy were unable to establish disease in all mice. Cytokine analysis of mice inoculated with 200Gy of irradiated parasites showed significantly lower levels of interleukins when compared to mice inoculated with non-irradiated and 100Gy irradiated parasites. Irradiation also differentially affected the abundance of gene transcripts in a dose-dependent trend measured at 6- and 20-hours post-irradiation with 234, 325, and 484 gene transcripts affected 6 hours post-irradiation for 100Gy-, 140Gy- and 200Gy-irradiated parasites, respectively. At 20 hours post-irradiation, 422, 381, and 457 gene transcripts were affected by irradiation at 100Gy, 140Gy, and 200Gy, respectively. A gene ontology (GO) term analysis was carried out for the three representative doses at 6 hours and 20 hours post-irradiation revealing different processes occurring at 20 hours when compared to 6 hours for 100Gy irradiation. The top ten most significant processes had a negative Z score. These processes fall in significance at 140Gy and even further at 200Gy, revealing that they were least likely to occur at 200Gy, and thus may have been responsible for infection in mice by 100Gy and 140Gy irradiated parasites. When looking at 100Gy irradiated parasites 20 hours post-irradiation processes with a positive Z score, we identified genes that were involved in multiple processes and compared their fold change values at 6 hours and 20 hours. We present these genes as possibly necessary for repair from irradiation damage at 6 hours and suggestive of being involved in the establishment of disease in mice at 20 hours post-irradiation. A potential strategy using this information to develop a whole parasite vaccine is also postulated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard T. Kangethe
- Animal Production and Health Laboratory, FAO/IAEA Agriculture and Biotechnology Laboratory, IAEA Laboratories Seibersdorf, International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), Vienna, Austria
- *Correspondence: Richard T. Kangethe,
| | - Eva M. Winger
- Animal Production and Health Laboratory, FAO/IAEA Agriculture and Biotechnology Laboratory, IAEA Laboratories Seibersdorf, International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), Vienna, Austria
| | - Tirumala Bharani K. Settypalli
- Animal Production and Health Laboratory, FAO/IAEA Agriculture and Biotechnology Laboratory, IAEA Laboratories Seibersdorf, International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), Vienna, Austria
| | - Sneha Datta
- Animal Production and Health Laboratory, FAO/IAEA Agriculture and Biotechnology Laboratory, IAEA Laboratories Seibersdorf, International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), Vienna, Austria
| | - Viskam Wijewardana
- Animal Production and Health Laboratory, FAO/IAEA Agriculture and Biotechnology Laboratory, IAEA Laboratories Seibersdorf, International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), Vienna, Austria
| | - Charles E. Lamien
- Animal Production and Health Laboratory, FAO/IAEA Agriculture and Biotechnology Laboratory, IAEA Laboratories Seibersdorf, International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), Vienna, Austria
| | - Hermann Unger
- Animal Production and Health Laboratory, FAO/IAEA Agriculture and Biotechnology Laboratory, IAEA Laboratories Seibersdorf, International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), Vienna, Austria
| | - Theresa H.T. Coetzer
- Biochemistry, School of Life Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa
| | - Giovanni Cattoli
- Animal Production and Health Laboratory, FAO/IAEA Agriculture and Biotechnology Laboratory, IAEA Laboratories Seibersdorf, International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), Vienna, Austria
| | - Adama Diallo
- Animal Production and Health Laboratory, FAO/IAEA Agriculture and Biotechnology Laboratory, IAEA Laboratories Seibersdorf, International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), Vienna, Austria
- UMR CIRAD INRA, Animal, Santé, Territoires, Risques et Ecosystèmes (ASTRE), Montpellier, France
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Wei R, Li X, Wang X, Zhang N, Wang Y, Zhang X, Gong P, Li J. Trypanosoma evansi evades host innate immunity by releasing extracellular vesicles to activate TLR2-AKT signaling pathway. Virulence 2021; 12:2017-2036. [PMID: 34348595 PMCID: PMC8344757 DOI: 10.1080/21505594.2021.1959495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Surra, one of the most important animal diseases with economic consequences in Asia and South America, is caused by Trypanosoma evansi. However, the mechanism of immune evasion by T. evansi has not been extensively studied. In the present study, T. evansi extracellular vesicles (TeEVs) were characterized and the role of TeEVs in T. evansi infection were examined. The results showed that T. evansi and TeEVs could activate TLR2-AKT pathway to inhibit the secretions of IL-12p40, IL-6, and TNF-α in mouse BMDMs. TLR2−/- mice and mice with a blocked AKT pathway were more resistant to T. evansi infection than wild type (WT) mice, with a significantly lower infection rate, longer survival time and less parasite load, as well as an increased secretion level of IL-12p40 and IFN-γ. Kinetoplastid membrane protein-11 (KMP-11) of TeEVs could activate AKT pathway and inhibit the productions of IL-12p40, TNF-α, and IL-6 in vitro. TeEVs and KMP-11 could inhibit the productions of IL-12p40 and IFN-γ, promote T. evansi proliferation and shorten the survival time of infected mice in vivo. In conclusion, T. evansi could escape host immune response through inhibiting the productions of inflammatory cytokines via secreting TeEVs to activate TLR2-AKT pathway. KMP-11 in TeEVs was involved in promoting T. evansi infection. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) secreted by Trypanosoma evansi (T. evansi) activate the TLR2-AKT signaling pathway to inhibit the production of inflammatory cytokines, thereby escaping the host’s immune response. Kinetoplastid membrane protein-11 (KMP-11) in EVs is related to the promotion of T.evansi infection via AKT pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ran Wei
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education; College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Xin Li
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education; College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Xiaocen Wang
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education; College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Nan Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education; College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Yuru Wang
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education; College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Xichen Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education; College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Pengtao Gong
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education; College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Jianhua Li
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education; College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, China
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Serum Health Biomarkers in African and Asian Elephants: Value Ranges and Clinical Values Indicative of the Immune Response. Animals (Basel) 2020; 10:ani10101756. [PMID: 32992555 PMCID: PMC7601509 DOI: 10.3390/ani10101756] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2020] [Revised: 09/18/2020] [Accepted: 09/25/2020] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Biomarkers are biological molecules found in the blood or other fluids or tissues that can indicate normal or abnormal processes or disease. Developing tools to measure biomarkers that indicate immune function and establishing concentrations observed within a species is an important first step in their use for managing health and understanding disease processes. Here we report assays, observed value ranges, and concentrations during illness or injury for seven immune biomarkers measured in the serum of African and Asian elephants under human care. Concentrations were variable in both clinical and non-clinical samples, but all seven biomarkers were elevated in at least one case and most increased in response to routine vaccination in a single Asian elephant. These tools provide an exciting avenue for monitoring health status and helping diagnose and treat health problems in wildlife species, like elephants. Abstract Serum biomarkers indicative of inflammation and disease can provide useful information regarding host immune processes, responses to treatment and prognosis. The aims of this study were to assess the use of commercially available anti-equine reagents for the quantification of cytokines (tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), interferon-gamma (IFN-γ), interleukins (IL) 2, 6, and 10) in African (Loxodonta africana, n = 125) and Asian (Elephas maximus, n = 104) elephants, and alongside previously validated anti-human reagents for acute-phase proteins (serum amyloid A and haptoglobin), calculate species-specific biomarker value ranges. In addition, we used opportunistically collected samples to investigate the concentrations of each biomarker during identified clinical cases of illness or injury, as a first step to understanding what biomarkers may be useful to managing elephant health. Immune biomarkers were each elevated above the calculated species-specific value ranges in at least one clinical case, but due to variability in both clinical and non-clinical samples, only serum amyloid A was significantly higher in clinical compared to non-clinical paired samples, with tendencies for higher TNF-α and IL-10. We also detected increased secretion of serum amyloid A and all five cytokines following routine vaccination of a single Asian elephant, indicating that these biomarkers can be beneficial for studying normal immune processes as well as pathology. This study indicates that assays developed with commercial reagents can be used to quantify health biomarkers in wildlife species and identifies several that warrant further investigation to elucidate immune responses to various pathologies.
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Magez S, Pinto Torres JE, Obishakin E, Radwanska M. Infections With Extracellular Trypanosomes Require Control by Efficient Innate Immune Mechanisms and Can Result in the Destruction of the Mammalian Humoral Immune System. Front Immunol 2020; 11:382. [PMID: 32218784 PMCID: PMC7078162 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.00382] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2020] [Accepted: 02/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Salivarian trypanosomes are extracellular parasites that affect humans, livestock, and game animals around the world. Through co-evolution with the mammalian immune system, trypanosomes have developed defense mechanisms that allow them to thrive in blood, lymphoid vessels, and tissue environments such as the brain, the fat tissue, and testes. Trypanosomes have developed ways to circumvent antibody-mediated killing and block the activation of the lytic arm of the complement pathway. Hence, this makes the innate immune control of the infection a crucial part of the host-parasite interaction, determining infection susceptibility, and parasitemia control. Indeed, trypanosomes use a combination of several independent mechanisms to avoid clearance by the humoral immune system. First, perpetuated antigenic variation of the surface coat allows to escape antibody-mediated elimination. Secondly, when antibodies bind to the coat, they are efficiently transported toward the endocytosis pathway, where they are removed from the coat proteins. Finally, trypanosomes engage in the active destruction of the mammalian humoral immune response. This provides them with a rescue solution in case antigenic variation does not confer total immunological invisibility. Both antigenic variation and B cell destruction pose significant hurdles for the development of anti-trypanosome vaccine strategies. However, developing total immune escape capacity and unlimited growth capabilities within a mammalian host is not beneficial for any parasite, as it will result in the accelerated death of the host itself. Hence, trypanosomes have acquired a system of quorum sensing that results in density-dependent population growth arrest in order to prevent overpopulating the host. The same system could possibly sense the infection-associated host tissue damage resulting from inflammatory innate immune responses, in which case the quorum sensing serves to prevent excessive immunopathology and as such also promotes host survival. In order to put these concepts together, this review summarizes current knowledge on the interaction between trypanosomes and the mammalian innate immune system, the mechanisms involved in population growth regulation, antigenic variation and the immuno-destructive effect of trypanosomes on the humoral immune system. Vaccine trials and a discussion on the role of innate immune modulation in these trials are discussed at the end.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefan Magez
- Laboratory for Biomedical Research, Ghent University Global Campus, Incheon, South Korea.,Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium.,Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
| | | | - Emmanuel Obishakin
- Laboratory for Biomedical Research, Ghent University Global Campus, Incheon, South Korea.,Biotechnology Division, National Veterinary Research Institute, Vom, Nigeria
| | - Magdalena Radwanska
- Laboratory for Biomedical Research, Ghent University Global Campus, Incheon, South Korea.,Department of Biomedical Molecular Biology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
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Evaluation of the Immunoprotective Potential of Recombinant Paraflagellar Rod Proteins of Trypanosoma evansi in Mice. Vaccines (Basel) 2020; 8:vaccines8010084. [PMID: 32059486 PMCID: PMC7157580 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines8010084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2019] [Revised: 01/24/2020] [Accepted: 01/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Trypanosomosis, caused by Trypanosoma evansi, is an economically significant disease of livestock. Systematic antigenic variation by the parasite has undermined prospects for the development of a protective vaccine that targets the immunodominant surface antigens, encouraging exploration of alternatives. The paraflagellar rod (PFR), constituent proteins of the flagellum, are prominent non-variable vaccine candidates for T. evansi owing to their strategic location. Two major PFR constituent proteins, PFR1 (1770bp) and PFR2 (1800bp), were expressed using Escherichia coli. Swiss albino mice were immunized with the purified recombinant TePFR1 (89KDa) and TePFR2 (88KDa) proteins, as well as with the mix of the combined proteins at equimolar concentrations, and subsequently challenged with virulent T. evansi. The PFR-specific humoral response was assessed by ELISA. Cytometric bead-based assay was used to measure the cytokine response and flow cytometry for quantification of the cytokines. The recombinant TePFR proteins induced specific humoral responses in mice, including IgG1 followed by IgG2a and IgG2b. A balanced cytokine response induced by rTePFR 1 and 2 protein vaccination associated with extended survival and improved control of parasitemia following lethal challenge. The observation confirms the immunoprophylactic potential of the covert antigens of T. evansi.
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Ramirez-Barrios R, Reyna-Bello A, Parra O, Valeris R, Tavares-Marques L, Brizard JP, Demettre E, Seveno M, Martinez-Moreno A, Holzmuller P. Trypanosoma vivax infection in sheep: Different patterns of virulence and pathogenicity associated with differentially expressed proteomes. Vet Parasitol 2019; 276S:100014. [PMID: 32904712 PMCID: PMC7458391 DOI: 10.1016/j.vpoa.2019.100014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2019] [Revised: 05/22/2019] [Accepted: 05/27/2019] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Trypanosoma vivax strains exhibit different virulence and pathogenicity patterns. TvMT1 strain showed low virulence and high pathogenicity. TvLIEM176 strain showed high virulence and moderate pathogenicity. Protein expression varies in high virulence/moderate pathogenicity strain vs low virulence/high pathogenicity strain.
Cattle trypanosomosis caused by Trypanosoma vivax is a widely distributed disease in Africa and Latin America. It causes significant losses in the livestock industry and is characterized by fluctuating parasitemia, anemia, fever, lethargy, and weight loss. In this study we evaluated the virulence (capacity to multiply inside the host and to modulate the host response) and pathogenicity (ability to produce disease and/or mortality) patterns of two T. vivax strains (TvMT1 and TvLIEM176) in experimentally-infected sheep and determined the proteins differentially expressed in the proteomes of these two strains. Hematological and clinical parameters were monitored in experimentally-infected versus non-infected sheep for 60 days. All the infected animals developed discernable parasitemia at 3 days post-infection (dpi), and the first parasitemia peak was observed at 6 dpi. The maximum average value of parasitemia was 1.3 × 107 (95% CI, 7.9 × 105–2 × 108) parasites/ml in TvLIEM176-infected animals, and 2.5 × 106 (95% CI, 1.6 × 105–4 × 107) parasites/ml in TvMT1-infected ones. Anemia and clinical manifestations were more severe in the animals infected by TvMT1 strain than in those infected by TvLIEM176. In the proteomic analysis, a total of 29 proteins were identified, of which 14 exhibited significant differences in their expression levels between strains. Proteins with higher expression in TvLIEM176 were: alpha tubulin, beta tubulin, arginine kinase, glucose-regulated protein 78, paraflagellar protein 3, and T-complex protein 1 subunit theta. Proteins with higher expression in TvMT1 were: chaperonin HSP60, T-complex protein 1 subunit alpha, heat shock protein 70, pyruvate kinase, glycerol kinase, inosine-5'-monophosphate dehydrogenase, 73 kDa paraflagellar rod protein, and vacuolar ATP synthase. There was a difference in the virulence and pathogenicity between the T. vivax strains: TvLIEM176 showed high virulence and moderate pathogenicity, whereas TvMT1 showed low virulence and high pathogenicity. The proteins identified in this study are discussed for their potential involvement in strains’ virulence and pathogenicity, to be further defined as biomarkers of severity in T. vivax infections.
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SINGH VEER, MAHARANA BISWARANJAN. Insight into trypanosomosis (Surra) of Indian livestock: Recent updates. THE INDIAN JOURNAL OF ANIMAL SCIENCES 2018. [DOI: 10.56093/ijans.v88i10.84068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Surra, caused by Trypanosoma evansi, is an economically important disease of a wide range of domestic and wild animals, and is most widely distributed. It is a potentially fatal disease causing huge economic losses to the livestock owners in terms of morbidity, mortality, abortion, infertility, reduced milk yield and also by interfering with vaccination programme in India. Due to sub clinical nature of the disease, it has been underestimated in cattle and buffaloes. Emergence of atypical cases of human trypanosomiasis has created an alarming situation and indicates a possible zoonotic threat in future. Accurate diagnosis of surra is extremely essential to identify animals for treatment, to assess the prevalence of the disease and to avoid indiscriminate usage of trypanocidal drugs. Diagnosis of surra still suffers from low sensitivity and specificity. There is an urgent need for sensitive cost effective penside diagnostic that can be applicable and affordable to smallholder farmers in endemic regions. The present review addresses various aspects of surra with special emphasis on disease epidemiology, emerging issues, current diagnostic trends, chemotherapeutics and preventive measures to limits its prevalence in livestock.
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Diagnostic application of recombinant Leishmania proteins and evaluation of their in vitro immunogenicity after stimulation of immune cells collected from tegumentary leishmaniasis patients and healthy individuals. Cell Immunol 2018; 334:61-69. [PMID: 30287082 DOI: 10.1016/j.cellimm.2018.09.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2018] [Revised: 09/13/2018] [Accepted: 09/27/2018] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
The present study evaluated the cytokine profile in PBMC supernatants and the humoral response in mucosal leishmaniasis (ML) patients and in healthy subjects living in an endemic area. Four proteins, which had previously proven to be antigenic in the human disease, were tested: LiHyM, enolase, eukaryotic initiation factor 5a, and Beta-tubulin. Results showed that all of the proteins stimulated human cells with higher IFN-γ and lower IL-4 and IL-10 levels. The analysis of antibody isotypes correlated with cell response, since the IgG2 production was higher than IgG1 in both groups. By contrast, a Th2 response was found when an antigenic Leishmania extract was used. Serological analyses revealed high sensitivity and specificity values for the serodiagnosis of the disease, when compared to the data obtained using the antigenic preparation. In conclusion, this study presents new candidates to be evaluated as biomarkers in tegumentary leishmaniasis.
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Bossard G, Grébaut P, Thévenon S, Séveno M, Berthier D, Holzmuller P. Cloning, expression, molecular characterization and preliminary studies on immunomodulating properties of recombinant Trypanosoma congolense calreticulin. INFECTION GENETICS AND EVOLUTION 2016; 45:320-331. [PMID: 27688033 DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2016.09.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2016] [Revised: 09/21/2016] [Accepted: 09/22/2016] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Trypanosomes are bloodstream protozoan parasites, which are pathogens of veterinary and medical importance. Several mammalian species, including humans, can be infected by different species of the genus Trypanosoma (T. congolense, T. evansi, T. brucei, T. vivax) exhibiting more or less virulent and pathogenic phenotypes. A previous screening of the excreted-secreted proteins of T. congolense demonstrated an overexpression of several proteins correlated with the virulence and pathogenicity of the strain. Of these proteins, calreticulin (CRT) has shown differential expression between two T. congolense strains with opposite infectious behavior and has been selected as a target molecule based on its immune potential functions in parasitic diseases. In this study, we set out to determine the role of T. congolense calreticulin as an immune target. Immunization of mice with recombinant T. congolense calreticulin induced antibody production, which was associated with delayed parasitemia and increased survival of the challenged animal. These results strongly suggest that some excreted-secreted proteins of T. congolense are a worthwhile target candidate to interfere with the infectious process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Geraldine Bossard
- CIRAD, UMR INTERTRYP (Interactions hôtes-vecteurs-parasites-environnement dans les maladies tropicales négligées dues aux trypanosomatidés), campus international de Baillarguet, TA/A-17/G, F-34398 Montpellier, France.
| | | | - Sophie Thévenon
- CIRAD, UMR INTERTRYP (Interactions hôtes-vecteurs-parasites-environnement dans les maladies tropicales négligées dues aux trypanosomatidés), campus international de Baillarguet, TA/A-17/G, F-34398 Montpellier, France.
| | - Martial Séveno
- plateforme de protéomique fonctionnelle, UMS biocampus Montpellier, institut de génomique fonctionnelle, 141 rue de la Cardonille, F-34094 Montpellier, France.
| | - David Berthier
- CIRAD, UMR INTERTRYP (Interactions hôtes-vecteurs-parasites-environnement dans les maladies tropicales négligées dues aux trypanosomatidés), campus international de Baillarguet, TA/A-17/G, F-34398 Montpellier, France.
| | - Philippe Holzmuller
- CIRAD, UMR CMAEE (control des maladies animales exotiques et émergentes), campus international de Baillarguet, TA/A-15/G, F-34398 Montpellier, France.
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Maharana BR, Tewari AK, Saravanan BC, Sudhakar NR. Important hemoprotozoan diseases of livestock: Challenges in current diagnostics and therapeutics: An update. Vet World 2016; 9:487-95. [PMID: 27284225 PMCID: PMC4893720 DOI: 10.14202/vetworld.2016.487-495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2015] [Accepted: 04/06/2016] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Hemoprotozoan parasites pose a serious threat to the livestock population in terms of mortality, reduced milk yield and lowered draft power. Diagnosis of these diseases often poses a challenging task. Needless to say that impact of disease in health and productivity is huge though a fair economic assessment on the quantum of economic loss associated is yet to be worked out from India. The diagnosis of hemoprotozoan infections largely depends on various laboratory-based diagnostic methods as the clinical manifestations are often inconspicuous and non-specific. Traditional diagnostic methods rely on microscopical demonstration of infective stages in blood or tissue fluids. However, it is laborious, lesser sensitive, and cannot differentiate between morphologically similar organisms. Recent development in the technologies has opened new avenues for improvement in the accurate diagnosis of parasitic infections. Serological tests are simple, fast but lack specificity. With advent of molecular techniques, as DNA hybridization assays, polymerase chain reaction and its modifications ensure the detection of infection in the latent phase of the disease. Nucleic acid-based assays are highly sensitive, free from immunocompetence and can differentiate between morphologically similar parasites. With the advent of newer diagnostics complemented with traditional ones will be of huge help for targeted selective treatment with better chemotherapeutic agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Biswa Ranjan Maharana
- Department of Veterinary Parasitology, College of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry, Junagadh Agricultural University, Junagadh, Gujarat, India
| | - Anup Kumar Tewari
- Division of Parasitology, Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Uttar Pradesh, India
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Maharana BR, Tewari AK, Singh V. An overview on kinetoplastid paraflagellar rod. J Parasit Dis 2015; 39:589-95. [PMID: 26688619 PMCID: PMC4675581 DOI: 10.1007/s12639-014-0422-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2013] [Accepted: 01/13/2014] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Kinetoplastids, the evolutionary ancient organisms exhibit a rich and diverse biology which epitomizes many of the fascinating topics of recent interest and study. These organisms possess a multifunctional organelle, the flagellum containing a canonical 9 + 2 axoneme which is involved in vital roles, viz. parasite cell division, morphogenesis, motility and immune evasion. Since Antony Van Leeuwenhoek's innovative explanation of 'little legs' helping the movements of microbes in 1975, this biological nanomachine has captured the thoughts of scientists. The core structure of kinetoplastid flagellum is embroidered with a range of extra-axonemal structures such as paraflagellar rod (PFR), a large lattice like structure which extends alongside the axoneme from the flagellar pocket to the flagellar tip. The coding sequences for significant components of PFR are highly conserved throughout the Kinetoplastida and Euglenida. The high order organization and restricted evolutionary distribution of the PFR components and structure makes the PFR a particularly valuable therapeutic and prophylactic target. This review focuses on the recent developments in identification of ultra structural components of PFR in order to understand the function of this intriguing organelle and devising strategies for therapeutic interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- B. R. Maharana
- />Department of Veterinary Parasitology, College of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry, Junagadh Agricultural University, Junagadh, 362001 Gujarat India
| | - A. K. Tewari
- />Division of Veterinary Parasitology, Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Bareilly, 243122 Uttar Pradesh India
| | - Veer Singh
- />Department of Veterinary Parasitology, College of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry, Sardar Krushinagar Dantiwada Agricultural University, Sardarkrushinagar, 3855006 Gujarat India
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Tewari AK, Kurup SP, Baidya S, Barta JR, Sharma B. Protective antibody and cytokine responses in mice following immunization with recombinant beta-tubulin and subsequent Trypanosoma evansi challenge. Parasit Vectors 2015; 8:580. [PMID: 26566996 PMCID: PMC4644280 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-015-1189-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2015] [Accepted: 10/30/2015] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Trypanosomosis or Surra, caused by the flagellated hemoprotozoan parasite Trypanosoma evansi, is a disease of economic importance through its wide prevalence in domestic livestock in tropical countries. In the absence of a protective vaccine, management of the disease relies on a few available chemotherapeutic agents. Although humoral immunity is the mainstay of resistance to T. evansi, the ability of the parasite to vary its immunodominant surface proteins to subvert the immune system has forced vaccine efforts to target a variety of invariant epitopes. Beta tubulin, an integral component of the trypanosome cytoskeleton, was therefore targeted using the recombinant form of the protein for immunization. Methods The 1329 bp coding sequence of beta tubulin gene was PCR amplified and cloned in pQE-TriSystem expression vector. Recombinant beta tubulin was heterologously expressed in Escherichia coli as a 46 KDa fusion protein and used for immunization of mice. The Ig response was studied by ELISA, whereas the cytokine response was measured using a cytometric bead-based assay quantified by flow cytometry. Result Immunization with recombinant beta (β)-tubulin protein induced a beta-tubulin specific humoral immune response of predominantly IgG2a isotype. Lethal challenge with T. evansi blood-form trypomastigotes post-immunization elicited a robust anamnestic response. An abundance of IFN-γ further confirmed the Th-1 bias of the protective response. We also observed extended survival and better control of the challenge infection in the immunized mice. Conclusions A robust anamnestic response following challenge including a Th-1 serum cytokine profile coupled with increased survival is indicative of protective immunity in the immunized mice. These observations suggest that β-tubulin of T. evansi is a viable antigenic target for development of a vaccine against this important livestock pathogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anup Kumar Tewari
- Department of Pathobiology, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, N1G 2W1, Canada. .,Division of Parasitology, Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Uttar Pradesh, 243 122, India.
| | - Samarchith P Kurup
- Division of Parasitology, Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Uttar Pradesh, 243 122, India. .,Department of Microbiology, University of Iowa Carver College of Medicine, Iowa City, IA, 52242, USA.
| | - Surajit Baidya
- Division of Parasitology, Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Uttar Pradesh, 243 122, India. .,Department of Parasitology, West Bengal University of Animal and Fishery Sciences, 37 & 68, Kshudiram Bose Sarani, Belgachia, Kolkata, West Bengal, 700037, India.
| | - John R Barta
- Department of Pathobiology, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, N1G 2W1, Canada.
| | - Bhaskar Sharma
- Division of Animal Biochemistry, Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Uttar Pradesh, 243 122, India.
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Wedrychowicz H. Antiparasitic DNA vaccines in 21st century. Acta Parasitol 2015; 60:179-89. [PMID: 26203983 PMCID: PMC7088677 DOI: 10.1515/ap-2015-0026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2014] [Revised: 12/15/2014] [Accepted: 12/17/2014] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Demands for effective vaccines to control parasitic diseases of humans and livestock have been recently exacerbated by the development of resistance of most pathogenic parasites to anti-parasitic drugs. Novel genomic and proteomic technologies have provided opportunities for the discovery and improvement of DNA vaccines which are relatively easy as well as cheap to fabricate and stable at room temperatures. However, their main limitation is rather poor immunogenicity, which makes it necessary to couple the antigens with adjuvant molecules. This paper review recent advances in the development of DNA vaccines to some pathogenic protozoa and helminths. Numerous studies were conducted over the past 14 years of 21st century, employing various administration techniques, adjuvants and new immunogenic antigens to increase efficacy of DNA vaccines. Unfortunately, the results have not been rewarding. Further research is necessary using more extensive combinations of antigens; alternate delivery systems and more efficient adjuvants based on knowledge of the immunomodulatory capacities of parasitic protozoa and helminths.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Disease Transmission, Infectious/prevention & control
- Drug Discovery/trends
- Helminthiasis/immunology
- Helminthiasis/prevention & control
- Helminthiasis/transmission
- Helminthiasis, Animal/immunology
- Helminthiasis, Animal/prevention & control
- Helminthiasis, Animal/transmission
- Humans
- Protozoan Infections/immunology
- Protozoan Infections/prevention & control
- Protozoan Infections/transmission
- Protozoan Infections, Animal/immunology
- Protozoan Infections, Animal/prevention & control
- Protozoan Infections, Animal/transmission
- Vaccines, DNA/administration & dosage
- Vaccines, DNA/immunology
- Vaccines, DNA/isolation & purification
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Affiliation(s)
- Halina Wedrychowicz
- Department of Molecular Biology, Laboratory of Molecular Parasitology, W. Stefański Institute Parasitology, Polish Academy of Sciences, 51/55 Twarda St., 00-818 Warsaw, Poland
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Mai YZ, Li YW, Li RJ, Li W, Huang XZ, Mo ZQ, Li AX. Proteomic analysis of differentially expressed proteins in the marine fish parasitic ciliate Cryptocaryon irritans. Vet Parasitol 2015; 211:1-11. [PMID: 25997646 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2015.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2014] [Revised: 03/26/2015] [Accepted: 05/07/2015] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Cryptocaryoniasis is a severe disease of farmed marine fish caused by the parasitic ciliate Cryptocaryon irritans. This disease can lead to considerable economic loss, but studies on proteins linked to disease development and antigenic proteins for vaccine development have been relatively scarce to date. In this study, 53 protein spots with differential abundance, representing 12 proteins, were identified based on a pair-wise comparison among theronts, trophonts, and tomonts. Meanwhile, 33 protein spots that elicited serological responses in rabbits were identified, representing 9 proteins. In addition, 27 common antigenic protein spots reacted with grouper anti-sera, representing 10 proteins. Most of the identified proteins were involved in cytoskeletal and metabolic pathways. Among these proteins, actin and α-tubulin appeared in all three developmental stages with differences in molecular weights and isoelectric points; 4 proteins (vacuolar ATP synthase catalytic subunit α, mcm2-3-5 family protein, 26S proteasome subunit P45 family protein and dnaK protein) were highly expressed only in theronts; while protein kinase domain containing protein and heat shock protein 70 showed high levels of expression only in trophonts and tomonts, respectively. Moreover, actin was co-detected with 3 rabbit anti-sera while β-tubulin, V-type ATPase α subunit family protein, heat shock protein 70, mitochondrial-type hsp70, and dnaK proteins showed immunoreactivity with corresponding rabbit anti-sera in theronts, trophonts, and tomonts. Furthermore, β-tubulin, the metabolic-related protein enolase, NADH-ubiquinone oxidoreductase 75 kDa subunit, malate dehydrogenase, as well as polypyrimidine tract-binding protein, glutamine synthetase, protein kinase domain containing protein, TNFR/NGFR cysteine-rich region family protein, and vacuolar ATP synthase catalytic subunit α, were commonly detected by grouper anti-sera. Therefore, these findings could contribute to an understanding of the differences in gene expression and phenotypes among the different stages of parasitic infection, and might be considered as a source of candidate proteins for disease diagnosis and vaccine development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yong-Zhan Mai
- State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol, Guangdong Province Key Laboratory for Aquatic Economic Animals, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yan-Wei Li
- State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol, Guangdong Province Key Laboratory for Aquatic Economic Animals, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Rui-Jun Li
- State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol, Guangdong Province Key Laboratory for Aquatic Economic Animals, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Wei Li
- State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol, Guangdong Province Key Laboratory for Aquatic Economic Animals, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xia-Zi Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol, Guangdong Province Key Laboratory for Aquatic Economic Animals, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Ze-Quan Mo
- College of Animal Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - An-Xing Li
- State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol, Guangdong Province Key Laboratory for Aquatic Economic Animals, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, China.
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Maharana B, Rao J, Tewari A, Singh H, Allaie I, Varghese A. Molecular characterisation of paraflagellar rod protein gene (PFR) ofTrypanosoma evansi. JOURNAL OF APPLIED ANIMAL RESEARCH 2013. [DOI: 10.1080/09712119.2013.795894] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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Desquesnes M, Holzmuller P, Lai DH, Dargantes A, Lun ZR, Jittaplapong S. Trypanosoma evansi and surra: a review and perspectives on origin, history, distribution, taxonomy, morphology, hosts, and pathogenic effects. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2013; 2013:194176. [PMID: 24024184 PMCID: PMC3760267 DOI: 10.1155/2013/194176] [Citation(s) in RCA: 203] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2013] [Accepted: 07/05/2013] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Trypanosoma evansi, the agent of "surra," is a salivarian trypanosome, originating from Africa. It is thought to derive from Trypanosoma brucei by deletion of the maxicircle kinetoplastic DNA (genetic material required for cyclical development in tsetse flies). It is mostly mechanically transmitted by tabanids and stomoxes, initially to camels, in sub-Saharan area. The disease spread from North Africa towards the Middle East, Turkey, India, up to 53° North in Russia, across all South-East Asia, down to Indonesia and the Philippines, and it was also introduced by the conquistadores into Latin America. It can affect a very large range of domestic and wild hosts including camelids, equines, cattle, buffaloes, sheep, goats, pigs, dogs and other carnivores, deer, gazelles, and elephants. It found a new large range of wild and domestic hosts in Latin America, including reservoirs (capybaras) and biological vectors (vampire bats). Surra is a major disease in camels, equines, and dogs, in which it can often be fatal in the absence of treatment, and exhibits nonspecific clinical signs (anaemia, loss of weight, abortion, and death), which are variable from one host and one place to another; however, its immunosuppressive effects interfering with intercurrent diseases or vaccination campaigns might be its most significant and questionable aspect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marc Desquesnes
- Cirad-Bios, UMR-InterTryp, Montpellier 34000, France
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kasetsart University, Chatuchak, Bangkok 10900, Thailand
| | | | - De-Hua Lai
- Center for Parasitic Organisms, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou 510275, China
| | | | - Zhao-Rong Lun
- Center for Parasitic Organisms, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou 510275, China
| | - Sathaporn Jittaplapong
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kasetsart University, Chatuchak, Bangkok 10900, Thailand
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