Molecular detection of co-infections with Anaplasma phagocytophilum and/or Babesia canis canis in Dirofilaria-positive dogs from Slovakia

Canine Babesiosis Caused by Large Babesia Species: Global Prevalence and Risk Factors-A Review

Canine babesiosis is a disease caused by protozoan pathogens belonging to the genus Babesia. Four species of large Babesia cause canine babesiosis (B. canis, B. rossi, B. vogeli, and the informally named B. coco). Although canine babesiosis has a worldwide distribution, different species occur in specific regions: B. rossi in sub-Saharan Africa, B. canis in Europe and Asia, and B. coco in the Eastern Atlantic United States, while B. vogeli occurs in Africa, southern parts of Europe and Asia, northern Australia, southern regions of North America, and in South America. B. vogeli is the most prevalent large Babesia species globally. This results from its wide range of monotropic vector species, the mild or subclinical nature of infections, and likely the longest evolutionary association with dogs. The most important risk factors for infection by large Babesia spp. include living in rural areas, kennels or animal shelters, or regions endemic for the infection, the season of the year (which is associated with increased tick activity), infestation with ticks, and lack of treatment with acaricides.

Genetic diversity of vector-borne pathogens in ixodid ticks infesting dogs from Pakistan with notes on Ehrlichia canis, Rickettsia raoultii and Dirofilaria immitis detection

BACKGROUND

Vector-/tick-borne pathogens (V/TBPs) pose a potential threat to human and animal health globally. Information regarding canine V/TBPs is scarce and no specific study has been conducted so far to explore the microbial diversity within ticks infesting dogs from Pakistan. Herein, this knowledge gap is addressed by assessing the genetic diversity and prevalence pattern of V/TBPs in ixodid ticks with special implications for public and canine health.

METHODS

A total of 1150 hard ticks were collected from 300 dogs across central Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP), Pakistan. After morpho-molecular identification, 120 tick samples were screened for the presence of V/TBPs by amplifying 16S rRNA/gltA (Rickettsia/Ehrlichia and Wolbachia sp.), 18S rRNA (Theileria sp.) and cox1 (Dirofilaria sp.) genes through PCR followed by sequencing and phylogenetic study.

RESULTS

In toto, 50 ixodid ticks (50/120, 41.7%) were found positive for V/TBPs DNA. The detected V/TBPs were categorized into five genera and eight species, viz. Ehrlichia (E. canis and Ehrlichia sp.), Rickettsia (R. massiliae, R. raoultii and Rickettsia sp.), Theileria (T. annulata), Dirofilaria (D. immitis) and Wolbachia (Wolbachia sp.). The pathogen prevalence patterns showed that R. massiliae was the most prevalent zoonotic V/TBP (19.5%), followed by E. canis (10.8%), Rickettsia sp. (7.5%), R. raoultii (6.7%), T. annulata (5.8%), D. immitis (5.8%), Wolbachia sp. (4.2%) and Ehrlichia sp. (3.3%), respectively. Among the screened tick species, most Rhipicephalus sanguineus sensu lato samples were found positive for V/TBP DNA (20/20,100%) followed by Rh. turanicus sensu stricto (13/20, 65%), Hyalomma dromedarii (8/20, 40%), Rh. haemaphysaloides (6/20, 30%), Hy. excavatum (2/20, 10%) and Rh. microplus (1/20, 5%). Co-occurrence of V/TBP was also detected in tick specimens (single V/TBP infection: 32 ticks; double and triple: 13 and 5 tick samples). The detected pathogens shared a phylogenetic relationship with similar isolates published in NCBI GenBank from Old and New World countries.

CONCLUSION

Ixodid ticks infesting dogs harbor a diverse array of V/TBPs including zoonotic agents from Pakistan. Furthermore, the presence of D. immitis in ticks that infest dogs raises the possibility that this parasite has either attained its dead-end host (i.e. the tick) while feeding on dogs or has expanded its range of intermediate/paratenic hosts. Further research work is needed to investigate the epidemiology and confirm the vector competence of screened tick species for these pathogens from Pakistan.

Canine babesiosis in Austria in the 21st century - A review of cases

A retrospective study on 699 cases of canine babesiosis presented to veterinary clinics in eastern Austria were evaluated for the location where infection had presumably taken place. Of these, 542 (77.54%) had acquired the infection in Austria, while the majority of non-autochthonous cases came from neighboring countries, most notable Hungary. Both groups were recorded primarily in Vienna, eastern Lower Austria and Burgenland, but cases from the southern (Styria, Carinthia) and western (Upper Austria, Tyrol, Salzburg) provinces of the country were also recorded. Records were made all year round, with most cases in spring (46.6%) and fall (48.4%). The annual cases ranged from four to 58 (mean: 31.8) with large fluctuations and no visible trend for an in- or decrease. The tick vector of Babesia canis, Dermacentor reticulatus, is present in Austria but displays a very patchy distribution, and its occurrence and activity are not readily foretold, which might be a reason why its presumably increasing density in Europe is not reflected by increased incidences of canine babesiosis. Another factor that may influence the numbers of cases per year could be the application (or non-application) of acaricidal or repellent compounds. A limitation of this study is that bias is exerted by the location of the participating clinics, and by the unknown rate of infections that does not induce clinical symptoms and is likely not presented in veterinary practices and clinics. The data, however, clearly show that at least the lowlands of Austria are endemic for B. canis, and appropriate tick control must be advised all year round.

What Has Happened to Heartworm Disease in Europe in the Last 10 Years?

Heartworm disease caused by Dirofilaria immitis is a vector-borne disease that affects canids and felids, both domestic and wild, throughout the world. It is a chronic disease which causes vascular damage in pulmonary arteries, and in advanced stages, the presence of pulmonary hypertension and right-sided congestive heart failure can be evidenced. Moreover, pulmonary thromboembolism is caused by the death of the worms, which can be lethal for the infected animal. Furthermore, it is the causative agent of human pulmonary dirofilariosis, being a zoonotic disease. The aim of this review was to update the current epidemiological situation of heartworm in Europe in dogs, cats, wild animals, and vectors insects, and to analyse the factors that may have contributed to the continuous spread of the disease in the last decade (2012–2021). In Europe, the disease has extended to eastern countries, being currently endemic in countries where previously only isolated or imported cases were reported. Furthermore, its prevalence has continued to increase in southern countries, traditionally endemic. This distribution trends and changes are influenced by several factors which are discussed in this review, such as the climate changes, presence of vectors in new areas, the appearance of new competent vector species in the continent, increased movement of pets that travelled to or originated from endemic countries, the urbanisation of rural areas leading to the formation of so-called “heat islands”, or the creation of extensive areas of irrigated crops. The continuous expansion of D. immitis must be monitored, and measures adapted to the situation of each country must be carried out for adequate control.

Tick-Borne Pathogens, Babesia spp. and Borrelia burgdorferi s.l., in Sled and Companion Dogs from Central and North-Eastern Europe

Ticks are important vectors of numerous pathogens of medical and veterinary significance. The aim of the current study was to determine the prevalence of Babesia spp. and Borrelia burgdorferi s.l. in sled and pet dogs from Central and North-Eastern Europe. Neither Babesia spp. nor Borrelia burgdorferi s.l. infections were detected in sled dogs from seven countries (Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Belarus, Russia and Finland). The DNA of Babesia spp. was detected in 100% of symptomatic and 5.4% of asymptomatic pet dogs from Poland. Similarly, the DNA of Babesia spp. was identified in 82% of symptomatic and 3.8% of asymptomatic pet dogs from Ukraine. The DNA of Borrelia burgdorferi s.l. was detected in 4.4% of pet dogs. Molecular typing confirmed the presence of Babesia canis and Borrelia burgdorferi sensu stricto (s.s.) in selected samples. Four dogs were co-infected by B. canis and Borrelia burgdorferi s.l. Tick-borne pathogens constitute a serious health threat to pet dogs in Central and South-Eastern Europe, but were not observed among sled dogs from the same region of Europe nor in the Baltic countries.

The distribution of Dermacentor reticulatus in the Czech Republic re-assessed: citizen science approach to understanding the current distribution of the Babesia canis vector

Background

The range of the ornate dog tick Dermacentorreticulatus is rapidly expanding in Europe. This tick species is the vector of canine babesiosis, caused by Babesiacanis, and also plays a role in the transmission of Theileriaequi and Babesiacaballi in equids.

Methods

The geographic range of D.reticulatus in the Czech Republic was re-assessed, and an up-to-date distribution map is presented based on material and data obtained during a nationwide citizen science campaign. Received and flagged individuals of D.reticulatus were also analysed for the presence of B.canis DNA.

Results

In striking contrast to historical records, D.reticulatus was found in all regions of the Czech Republic, with most reports coming from the southeast and northwest of the country. Between February 2018 and June 2021, the project team received 558 photo reports of ticks and 250 packages containing ticks. Of the former, 71.1% were identified as Dermacentor sp. with the remainder identified as Ixodes sp., Haemaphysalis sp., Argas sp. or Hyalomma sp. The majority of specimens in the subset of ticks that were received (N = 610) were D.reticulatus (N = 568, 93.7%), followed by Ixodesricinus and Hyalomma spp. A total of 783 adult D.reticulatus, either received (568) or collected by flagging (215), were tested for the presence of B.canis DNA using species-specific nested PCR targeting part of the 18S rRNA gene; B.canis DNA was demonstrated in 22 samples (2.81%).

Conclusions

The continuous spread of D.reticulatus in the Czech Republic was documented in this study. In addition, DNA of B.canis was also detected in a number of ticks, suggesting the establishment of B.canis in the Czech Republic. These results suggest that veterinarians need to consider the possibility of canine babesiosis even in dogs without a history of travel.

Graphical Abstract

Development of a real-time PCR method for rapid diagnosis of canine babesiosis and anaplasmosis

Background

Canine babesiosis and anaplasmosis, caused by Babesia canis and Anaplasma phagocytophilum, respectively, are significant tick-borne diseases in Baltic countries. Both diseases can be diagnosed on the basis of clinicopathological findings, by direct pathogen detection in blood smears or by indirect pathogen detection; however, because of high selectivity and specificity, molecular methods may be advantageous. The goal of this study was to develop a duplex real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) method for the detection of B. canis and A. phagocytophilum in canine clinical samples.

Methods

Sequence-based polymorphism analysis of genes encoding B. canis-specific merozoite surface protein Bc28.1 (Bc28.1) and A. phagocytophilum malate dehydrogenase (mdh) was performed on pathogen isolates present in Latvian domestic dogs. The obtained results were used to design a species-specific duplex RT-PCR assay.

Results

The presence of three B. canis Bc28.1 gene sequence types was revealed in canine samples with a nonuniform geographical distribution, and two types of A. phagocytophilum mdh genes were detected. The novel duplex RT-PCR assay provided correct classification of samples positive and negative for B. canis and A. phagocytophilum. The analytical sensitivity of this assay was ten gene copies/ reaction for both pathogens.

Conclusions

A novel duplex RT-PCR molecular method was developed for the detection of B. canis and A. phagocytophilum in canine clinical samples. Sequence variability of Bc28.1 and mdh genes indicated the genetic variability of B. canis and A. phagocytophilum isolates occurring in Latvian domestic dogs.

Graphic Abstract

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13071-021-04756-9.

Haematological and biochemical abnormalities in hunting dogs infected with Acanthocheilonema reconditum, associated risk factors, and a European overview

Acanthocheilonema reconditum is a filarial parasite transmitted by arthropods (fleas, lice, and ticks) that infect dogs. There is minimal published data available to date on potential haematological and biochemical changes associated with this parasitic infection. Study aims were (i) provide an overview of A. reconditum in Europe, (ii) define A. reconditum prevalence and risk factors in a specific dog population (hunting) from southern Italy, and (iii) assess the frequency of haemato-biochemical abnormalities associated with infection. Blood samples collected from 3020 dogs were tested by a modified Knott's technique to count and identify microfilariae. Eighty-four dogs were infected by A. reconditum (2.78%; 95% CI 2.19-3.37%). Microfilariae ranged from 1 to 212/ml. Based on clinical examination, all but six dogs with non-specific symptoms were healthy. Haematological abnormalities included leucocytosis (n = 15), with eosinophilia (n = 14) and monocytosis (n = 13). Serum biochemical abnormalities included increased total serum proteins (n = 19), albumins (n = 7), total globulins (n = 14), ALT (n = 1), and ALP (n = 1); one dog was hypoalbuminemic, and BUN was mildly increased in 2 dogs. Risk factors included the province origin (Napoli, OR=5.4, 95%CI: 2.1-14.0; Caserta, OR=5.1, 95%CI: 2.5-10.6), hunting wild mammals (OR=2.8, 95% 95%CI: 1.6-4.8), and ectoparasite infestation (OR=1.9, 95%CI: 1.1-3.1). There was a negative correlation between microfilaraemic load and decreased albumin level (-0.37; p=0.021). Our results showed that A. reconditum circulates within the hunting dog population of southern Italy, with seemingly low pathogenic potential.

Molecular Identification and Genotyping of Babesia canis in Dogs from Meshkin Shahr County, Northwestern Iran

Background

Canine babesiosis is one of the mainly worldwide-distributed tick-borne haemoprotozoan parasitic diseases in dogs.

Methods

A total of 43 blood samples were randomly collected from naturally infected dogs in seven villages from different geographical areas of Meshkin Shahr, Ardabil Province, Iran. The presence of Babesia species detected with standard methods including parasitological and gene sequencing techniques targeting the 18S rRNA gene.

Results

Our results revealed that four dogs 9.3% (4/43) including one female and three male dogs were infected with Babesia. All four Babesia-infected dogs were confirmed B. canis by the molecular-based method. Sequence alignments comparison of the B. canis genotypes A and B, it was revealed that all B. canis isolates belonged to genotype B.

Conclusion

This study provides essential data for subsequently define the critical importance of the molecular studies in management and prevention of the canine babesiosis in Iran.

Molecular detection and genetic characteristics of Babesia gibsoni in dogs in Shaanxi Province, China

Background

Several members of genus Babesia are important pathogens causing babesiosis in dogs. In China, at least five Babesia species have been described in dogs or ticks. This study sought to determine the prevalence and molecular characteristics of various Babesia spp. in dogs in cities in Shaanxi Province in China, including Xi’an and Hanzhong.

Methods

A total of 371 blood samples were collected from pet dogs presenting to veterinary clinics in the cities of Xi’an and Hanzhong in Shaanxi, China. Babesia spp. DNA was detected via amplification of partial 18S rRNA genes by semi-nested PCR. Almost full-length 18S rRNA, ITS, partial TRAP and complete cytb genes were recovered for analysis of the genetic characteristics and relationships with known isolates.

Results

A single species, Babesia gibsoni, was identified in dogs in Xi’an and Hanzhong. Consistently, B. gibsoni was also detected in 14 ticks collected from positive dogs. Sequence similarities and phylogenetic analysis suggested that the isolates identified herein showed a closer genetic relationship with isolates from East Asian countries rather than India, Bangladesh, or the USA. Sequence analysis based on tandem repeat analysis of the TRAP gene further revealed that specific haplotypes were circulating in both Xi’an and Hanzhong, with no specific regionality. In addition, 10.9% of all isolates with atovaquone (ATV)-resistance were identified because of M121I mutation in the deduced cytb protein.

Conclusions

This study revealed a high prevalence rate of Babesia infection. Babesia gibsoni was the only Babesia species identified in cases of canine babesiosis in the cities of Xi’an and Hanzhong cities in Shaanxi, China. In addition, the TRAP gene presented high genetic diversity across isolates. Such information is useful for elucidating the epidemiological characteristics of canine babesiosis, as well as the overall genetic diversity of Babesia spp. circulating in dog populations in Shaanxi Province.

The global status of Dirofilaria immitis in dogs: a systematic review and meta-analysis based on published articles

Dirofilaria immitis is a parasitic filarial nematode responsible for heartworm disease in domestic as well as wild canines and felines and pulmonary or cutaneous infections in humans. This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to evaluate the status of D. immitis in dogs based on available literature. Four English language databases (ISI Web of Science, Scopus, PubMed and Science Direct) containing data on D. immitis prevalence in dogs were thoroughly searched resulting in the inclusion of 193 studies. The findings revealed that the pooled and weighted prevalence of D. immitis infection in dog population based on published papers throughout the world was 10.91% (95% CI=10.18-11.65). In addition, subgroup analysis based on meta-regression revealed that a significant difference between the pooled and weighted prevalence of D. immitis in dogs and country (β =0.14, P=0.049). Given the relatively high prevalence of D. immitis infection in dogs and its adverse effects, it is suggested that to perform more research on the prevention and control of dirofilariasis infection in dogs worldwide.

Detection of Dirofilaria immitis using microscopic, serological and molecular techniques among dogs in Cabo Frio, RJ, Brazil

Abstract Heartworm disease is a health problem for dogs and cats, especially in tropical and subtropical coastal regions of the world. Some studies have compared the efficacy of the diagnostic techniques used to detect this parasitosis. Therefore, the aim of this study was to compare parasitological optical microscopy (POM), serological and molecular techniques for diagnosing canine heartworm infection. Samples were collected between July 2015 and April 2016 from 103 dogs in Cabo Frio, RJ, Brazil. The wet fresh blood, thick smears, thin smears and modified Knott’s test were used to detect microfilariae. ELISA (Snap™ 4Dx ® IDEXX) was used to detect antigens and the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was used to detect DNA and enable sequencing for species differentiation and confirmation. 19.4% of samples were positive according to microscopy. Through PCR, 15.5% of the total were positive. Using ELISA, the positivity rate was 29.1%. Occult heartworm infection was detected in 11.6% of the samples. ELISA sensitivity was shown to be higher than PCR or microscopy (P = 0.001). Sequencing of samples confirmed the presence of Dirofilaria immitis and Acanthocheilonema reconditum . ELISA was more effective for serological diagnosis canine heartworm and should be used in clinical and epidemiological studies.

Dirofilaria repens in dogs and humans in Lithuania

BACKGROUND

In Lithuania, the first case of canine subcutaneous dirofilariosis was recorded in 2010. Since then, an increasing number of cases of canine dirofilariosis have been documented in different veterinary clinics throughout the country. Human dirofilariosis was diagnosed in Lithuania for the first time in September 2011. However, to the authors' knowledge, there are no published data on the presence and prevalence of autochthonous dirofilariosis in dogs and humans in the country. The present study provides information about the predominant species and prevalence of Dirofilaria in dogs and describes the cases of human dirofilariosis in Lithuania. It also outlines PCR detection of the bacterial endosymbiont Wolbachia that contributes to the inflammatory features of filarioid infection.

RESULTS

A total of 2280 blood samples and six adult worms from pet and shelter dogs were collected in the central and eastern regions of Lithuania in 2013-2015. Based on their morphological appearance, morphometric measurements and molecular analysis, all the adult nematodes were identified as Dirofilaria repens. The diagnosis of microfilariae in blood samples was based on blood smear analysis and Knott's test. The PCR and sequence analysis of the ribosomal DNA ITS2 region and cox1 gene confirmed the presence of D. repens. Overall, 61 (2.7%) of the 2280 blood samples were found to be positive for the presence of D. repens. The infection rate of D. repens was significantly higher in shelter dogs (19.0%; 19/100) than in pet dogs (1.9%; 42/2180) (χ2 = 100.039, df = 1, P < 0.0001). Forty-nine DNA samples of D. repens-infected dogs were tested for the presence of the bacterial endosymbiont Wolbachia and, of these, 40 samples (81.6%) were found to be positive. Three ocular and six subcutaneous cases of human dirofilariosis were diagnosed in Lithuania in the period 2011-2018.

CONCLUSIONS

To the authors' knowledge, this is the first report of autochthonous D. repens infection in dogs and humans in Lithuania. The present data demonstrate that D. repens is the main etiological agent of dirofilariosis in Lithuania. The DNA of the filarioid endosymbiotic bacterium Wolbachia was detected in the vast majority of dogs infected with D. repens.

Dirofilaria repens-An etiological factor or an incidental finding in cytologic and histopathologic biopsies from dogs

Dirofilaria repens is an endemic, zoonotic parasite of carnivores, causing subcutaneous dirofilariasis, which is mostly asymptomatic. The aim of this study was to describe 22 cases of canine subcutaneous dirofilariasis. The cytologic and histopathologic samples were collected from dogs, which presented with various clinical signs such as cutaneous/subcutaneous nodules, hydropericardium, ascites, and lymphadenomegaly. The cytologic or histopathologic examination revealed purulent, pyogranulomatous, granulomatous or eosinophilic dermatitis/panniculitis, and the presence of D repens microfilariae or adults. The microfilariae or adults were also found incidentally in neoplastic cutaneous or subcutaneous tumors and in a sialocele. For the first time, microfilariae were also detected and described in pericardial and abdominal effusions and in enlarged reactive lymph nodes. Although it is well known that D repens can cause dermatitis and panniculitis in dogs, no previous reports of D repens microfilariae in body cavity fluids were found. The role of this parasite in the accumulation of body cavity fluid or in reactive lymphadenomegaly requires further investigation. Due to its zoonotic potential, and apparently underestimated pathogenicity, each case of canine subcutaneous dirofilariasis should be treated.

First Molecular Detection of Babesia gibsoni in Dogs from Wuhan, China

Canine piroplasmosis is a significant disease in dogs caused by Babesia and Theileria parasites. The clinical manifestations range from mild illness to serious disease depending on the parasite species and the physical condition of the infected dog. Canine piroplasmosis has been reported to be prevalent in China. However, no molecular evidence of the disease has been reported in pet dogs from Wuhan. In this study, 118 blood samples were randomly collected from pet dogs in veterinary clinics. The blood samples were subjected to both microscopic examination and reverse line blot (RLB) hybridization assays to detect piroplasm infection. Parasites were observed in 10 blood samples via microscopic examination, whereas there were 14 Babesia gibsoni-positive RLB tests. Phylogenetic analysis was performed after the 18S rRNA and ITS gene sequences from the 14 positive samples were cloned and sequenced. The results confirmed the existence of B. gibsoni in this area. This is the first molecular report of canine babesiosis in pet dogs from Wuhan, China. Pet dogs are companion animals, and the prevalence of babesiosis will be of concern in daily life. This study will help veterinarians better understand the prevalence of canine babesiosis and provide a guide for disease control in pet dogs.

Canine tick-borne diseases in pet dogs from Romania

BACKGROUND

Tick-borne diseases are of substantial concern worldwide for animals as well as humans. Dogs have been a human companion for millennia, and their significant impact on human life renders disease in dogs to be of great concern. Tick-borne diseases in dogs represent a substantial diagnostic challenge for veterinarians in that clinical signs are often diffuse and overlapping. In addition, co-infections with two or more pathogens enhance this problem further. Molecular methods are useful to disentangle co-infections and to accurately describe prevalence and geographical distribution of tick-borne diseases. At this point, this information is lacking in many areas worldwide. Romania is one such area, where prevalence and distribution of several important pathogens need to be further investigated. To address this, we screened blood samples from 96 sick dogs with molecular methods for eight different pathogens including Babesia spp., Theileria spp., Hepatozoon spp., Anaplasma spp., Ehrlichia spp., "Candidatus Neoehrlichia mikurensis", Mycoplasma spp., and Borrelia spp.

RESULTS

As many as 45% (43/96) of the dogs in the study were infected with protozoan parasites. Babesia canis was the most frequent of these (28 infected dogs), whereas Hepatozoon canis was detected in 15% (14/96) and Babesia gibsoni was found in a single sample. Bacterial infection with Mycoplasma spp. occurred in 18% (17/96) of the sampled dogs. Obtained bacterial sequences revealed the occurrence of two species: Mycoplasma canis and "Candidatus Mycoplasma haematoparvum". In several cases co-infection with protozoan parasites and Mycoplasma sp. were detected. All dogs were negative for Anaplasma spp., Ehrlichia spp., "Ca. Neoehrlichia mikurensis", and for Borrelia spp.

CONCLUSIONS

The results from the present study reinforce the notion that Babesia canis is an important pathogen in the Romanian dog population. However, more surprisingly, another protozoan species, H. canis, seems to be infecting dogs to a larger extent than previously recognized in Romania. Well-known tick-borne bacterial disease agents such as Anaplasma spp. and Borrelia spp. were not detected. In contrast, less well-studied bacteria such as hemotropic Mycoplasma spp. were detected frequently. Moreover, co-infection might aggravate disease and complicate diagnosis and should be further studied in dogs.

The prevalence of Dirofilaria repens in cats, healthy dogs and dogs with concurrent babesiosis in an expansion zone in central Europe

BACKGROUND

Dirofilaria repens is a mosquito-transmitted, filarial nematode parasitizing dogs, cats and other carnivores. Recently, this parasite has spread in central Europe, including Poland. The aim of the present study was to estimate the prevalence of D. repens in cats and dogs in different regions of the country and to investigate the occurrence and consequences of co-infection with another fast-spreading vector-borne parasite, Babesia canis.

RESULTS

In the period 2013-2015, 147 blood samples from cats from central Poland and 257 blood samples from dogs from central, northern, southern and western Poland were collected. Prevalence of D. repens was determined by amplification and sequencing of the 12S rDNA gene fragment. Among dogs, 94 samples originated from clinically healthy dogs from central Poland (Masovia) and 58 samples originated from dogs that were infected with B. canis. Prevalence of D. repens was compared between these two groups of dogs. For the first time D. repens was identified in a cat from central Europe (0.7 % [95 % CL: 0-4.1 %]). The DNA of the filarial endosymbiotic bacterium Wolbachia was detected in two cats (1.4 % [95 % CL: 0-5.5 %]). In dogs, the parasite was detected only in samples from central Poland (Masovia) (local prevalence = 38 % [95 % CL: 25.9-51.8 %]). Prevalence of D. repens was significantly higher in dogs with babesiosis (90 % [95 % CL: 81.6-94.5 %]). Co-infections of D. repens and B. canis were confirmed by sequencing in 30 dogs with babesiosis, but no co-infections were identified in healthy dogs from Masovia. Statistical analyses of blood parameters revealed that dogs with co-infections suffered more severe anemia and thrombocytopenia, but presented milder changes in biochemical parameters (i.e. less elevated concentration of alkaline phosphatase [ALP] and serum urea) suggesting lower risk of hepatic or renal failure in comparison to dogs infected only with B. canis.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings are important due to the spread of dirofilariosis and babesiosis in central Europe, as microfilaraemic dogs seem to be more prone to babesiosis. The possible protective effect of the nematode infection against hepatic or renal failure in canine babesiosis and its mechanisms require further investigations.

A review of canine babesiosis: the European perspective

Canine babesiosis is a significant tick-borne disease caused by various species of the protozoan genus Babesia. Although it occurs worldwide, data relating to European infections have now been collected for many years. These data have boosted the publication record and increased our working knowledge of these protozoan parasites. Both the large and small forms of Babesia species (B. canis, B. vogeli, B. gibsoni, and B. microti-like isolates also referred to as "B. vulpes" and "Theileria annae") infect dogs in Europe, and their geographical distribution, transmission, clinical signs, treatment, and prognosis vary widely for each species. The goal of this review is to provide veterinary practitioners with practical guidelines for the diagnosis, treatment and prevention of babesiosis in European dogs. Our hope is that these guidelines will answer the most frequently asked questions posed by veterinary practitioners.

The Increase of Exotic Zoonotic Helminth Infections: The Impact of Urbanization, Climate Change and Globalization

Zoonotic parasitic diseases are increasingly impacting human populations due to the effects of globalization, urbanization and climate change. Here we review the recent literature on the most important helminth zoonoses, including reports of incidence and prevalence. We discuss those helminth diseases which are increasing in endemic areas and consider their geographical spread into new regions within the framework of globalization, urbanization and climate change to determine the effect these variables are having on disease incidence, transmission and the associated challenges presented for public health initiatives, including control and elimination.

Recent study on canine vector-borne zoonoses in southern Slovakia - serologic survey

Over the last decade a significant spread of Canine Vector Borne Diseases has been recorded in Central Europe. The aim of the study described here, was to collect current data on the occurrence and distribution of three major canine vector-borne pathogens in the veterinary clinical practice by a newly-developed commercial ELISA test for the detection of Dirofilaria immitis antigen as well as specific circulating antibodies to Anaplasma phagocytophilum and Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato. Circulating D. immitis antigen was detected in five of 180 investigated sera samples. Two of D. immitis seropositive dogs revealed also microfilariae of D. repens in the blood and three of them were negative for the presence of microfilariae in the Knott's test. From the practical point of view, the finding of D. immitis occult infections might influence existing knowledge about distribution of this species among dogs in Central European countries. In 11.7% of the tested dogs the presence of specific antibodies against A. phagocytophilum was confirmed. Antibodies against B. burgdorferi s.l. were detected in 2.8% of tested sera samples. Coinfection with A. phagocytophilum and B. burgdorferi s.l. was observed in two dogs from Košice district in south-eastern Slovakia. Our data point toward the presence of Canine Vector Borne Diseases in the studied area. Therefore, veterinarians should include these diseases in their differential diagnosis and higher awareness should be focused also on prophylactic measures to prevent the pathogens transmission by arthropod vectors.

First molecular identification of Babesia gibsoni in dogs from Slovakia, central Europe

Canine babesiosis is a severe and potentially life threatening infection. In Europe, Babesia canis is considered to be the most common species responsible for the disease. We report two cases of babesiosis caused by Babesia gibsoni. The polymerase chain reaction, restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis and further sequencing of 18S rRNA gene fragments from blood samples of both dogs revealed the identity of isolates with B. gibsoni genotypes from other dogs worldwide. This species was previously not known to infect dogs in Slovakia. It is resistant to traditional anti-babesial therapy. Therefore, correct diagnosis is crucial for the successful treatment, especially in dogs with hemolytic anemia and febrile conditions.

Dirofilaria repens and Dirofilaria immitis DNA findings in mosquitoes in Germany: temperature data allow autochthonous extrinsic development

After the repeated demonstration of Dirofilaria repens infections in German dogs, D. repens and Dirofilaria immitis DNA was detected in mosquitoes trapped in 2011, 2012 and 2013 in northeastern and southwestern Germany within the framework of culicid monitoring projects. As temperature is the most important factor dictating the extrinsic development of dirofilarial larvae in the potential vector, data of the German Weather Service (DWD) were analysed for the regions where the positive mosquitoes had been collected. Based on the mean daily temperatures recorded by weather stations most closely to the collection sites of the mosquitoes, it can be concluded that the mosquitoes were trapped in time periods that allowed for the completion of the developmental cycle of the worms in the mosquitoes and a subsequent transmission to a vertebrate host. The results of this study confirm the principal climatic suitability of certain German regions for the establishment of natural dirofilarial transmission cycles. Moreover, the theoretical climatic considerations, together with findings of D. repens infections in German dogs and mosquitoes, strongly suggest that the continuing spread of at least D. repens from its traditional habitats in the Mediterranean has reached southwestern and northeastern Germany.