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A point mutation in human parainfluenza virus type 2 nucleoprotein leads to two separate effects on virus replication. J Virol 2021; 96:e0206721. [PMID: 34878809 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02067-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Paramyxovirus genomes, like that of human parainfluenza virus type 2 (hPIV2), are precisely a multiple of six nucleotides long ("rule of six"), in which each nucleoprotein subunit (NP) binds precisely 6 nucleotides. Ten residues of its RNA binding groove contact the genome RNA; but only one, Q202, directly contacts a nucleotide base. Mutation of NPQ202 leads to two phenotypes; the ability of the viral polymerase to replicate minigenomes with defective bipartite promoters where NPwt is inactive, and the inability to rescue rPIV2 carrying this point mutation by standard means. The absence a rPIV2 NPQ202A prevented further study of this latter phenotype. By extensive and repeated co-cultivation of transfected cells, a rPIV2 carrying this mutation was finally recovered, and this virus was apparently viable due to the presence of an additional NP mutation (I35L). Our results suggest that these two phenotypes are due to separate effects of the Q202 mutation, and that of the problematic rescue phenotype may be due to the inability of the transfected cell to incorporate viral nucleocapsids during virus budding. Importance Paramyxovirus genomes are contained within a non-covalent homopolymer of its nucleoprotein (NP) and form helical nucleocapsids (NC) whose 3' ends contain the promoters for the initiation of viral RNA synthesis. This work suggests that these NC 3' ends may play another role in the virus life cycle, namely via their specific interaction with virus modified cell membranes needed for the incorporation of viral NCs into budding virions.
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Human Parainfluenza Virus Type 2 V Protein Modulates Iron Homeostasis. J Virol 2021; 95:JVI.01861-20. [PMID: 33408172 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01861-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2020] [Accepted: 12/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Intracellular iron concentration is tightly controlled for cell viability. It is known to affect the growth of several viruses, but the molecular mechanisms are not well understood. We found that iron chelators inhibit growth of human parainfluenza virus type 2 (hPIV-2). Furthermore, infection with hPIV-2 alters ferritin localization from granules to a homogenous distribution within cytoplasm of iron-stimulated cells. The V protein of hPIV-2 interacts with ferritin heavy chain 1 (FTH1), a ferritin subunit. It also binds to nuclear receptor coactivator 4 (NCOA4), which mediates autophagic degradation of ferritin, so-called ferritinophagy. V protein consequently interferes with interaction between FTH1 and NCOA4. hPIV-2 growth is inhibited in FTH1 knockdown cell line where severe hPIV-2-induced apoptosis is shown. In contrast, NCOA4 knockdown results in the promotion of hPIV-2 growth and limited apoptosis. Our data collectively suggest that hPIV-2 V protein inhibits FTH1-NCOA4 interaction and subsequent ferritinophagy. This iron homeostasis modulation allows infected cells to avoid apoptotic cell death, resulting in effective growth of hPIV-2.IMPORTANCE hPIV-2 V protein interferes with interaction between FTH1 and NCOA4 and inhibits NCOA4-mediated ferritin degradation, leading to the inhibition of iron release to the cytoplasm. This iron homeostasis modulation allows infected cells to avoid apoptotic cell death, resulting in effective growth of hPIV-2.
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Ohta K, Matsumoto Y, Nishio M. Inhibition of Cavin3 Degradation by the Human Parainfluenza Virus Type 2 V Protein Is Important for Efficient Viral Growth. Front Microbiol 2020; 11:803. [PMID: 32425917 PMCID: PMC7203785 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2020.00803] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2020] [Accepted: 04/03/2020] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Cavin proteins have important roles in the formation of caveolae in lipid raft microdomains. Pulse-chase experiments of cells infected with human parainfluenza virus type 2 (hPIV-2) showed decreased proteasomal degradation of Cavin3. Overexpression of hPIV-2 V protein alone was sufficient to inhibit Cavin3 degradation. Immunoprecipitation analysis revealed that V protein bound to Cavin3. Trp residues within C-terminal region of V protein, as well as the N-terminal region of Cavin3, are important for V–Cavin3 interaction. Cavin3 knockdown suppressed hPIV-2 growth without affecting its entry, replication, transcription, or translation. Higher amounts of Cavin3 were observed in V protein-overexpressing cells than in control cells in lipid raft microdomains. Our data collectively suggest that hPIV-2 V protein binds to and stabilizes Cavin3, which in turn facilitates assembly and budding of hPIV-2 in lipid raft microdomains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keisuke Ohta
- Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, Wakayama Medical University, Wakayama, Japan
| | - Yusuke Matsumoto
- Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, Wakayama Medical University, Wakayama, Japan
| | - Machiko Nishio
- Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, Wakayama Medical University, Wakayama, Japan
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Ohta K, Matsumoto Y, Nishio M. Profilin2 is required for filamentous actin formation induced by human parainfluenza virus type 2. Virology 2019; 533:108-114. [PMID: 31150988 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2019.05.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2019] [Revised: 05/09/2019] [Accepted: 05/23/2019] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
We previously reported that human parainfluenza virus type 2 (hPIV-2) promoted RhoA activation and subsequent filamentous actin (F-actin) formation. Actin-binding proteins, such as profilin and cofilin, are involved in the regulation of F-actin formation by RhoA signaling. In the present study, we identified profilin2 as a key molecule that is involved in hPIV-2-induced F-actin formation. Immunoprecipitation assays demonstrated that hPIV-2 V protein binds to profilin2 but not to profilin1. Mutation of Trp residues within C-terminal region of V protein abolished the binding capacity to profilin2. Depletion of profilin2 resulted in the inhibition of hPIV-2-induced F-actin formation and the suppression of hPIV-2 growth. Overexpression of wild type V but not Trp-mutated V protein reduced the quantity of actin co-immunoprecipitated with profilin2. Taken together, these results suggest that hPIV-2 V protein promotes F-actin formation by affecting actin-profilin2 interaction through its binding to profilin2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keisuke Ohta
- Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, Wakayama Medical University, Japan
| | - Yusuke Matsumoto
- Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, Wakayama Medical University, Japan
| | - Machiko Nishio
- Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, Wakayama Medical University, Japan.
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Matsumoto Y, Nouchi T, Ohta K, Nishio M. Regulation of Hazara virus growth through apoptosis inhibition by viral nucleoprotein. Arch Virol 2019; 164:1597-1607. [PMID: 30949813 DOI: 10.1007/s00705-019-04236-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2018] [Accepted: 02/14/2019] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Hazara virus (HAZV) is closely related to Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus (CCHFV), but differs in that it is non-pathogenic to humans. Since HAZV was isolated for the first time in 1954, the biological characteristics of this virus, particularly its behavior within culture cells, have not been well-studied, despite its importance as a surrogate model for CCHFV. Nucleoprotein (N) is the main component of viral nucleocapsid and is the most abundant virion protein, it is believed to play a pivotal role in the viral lifecycle. Generation of a series of anti-HAZV N monoclonal antibodies has enabled us to directly examine the involvement of this protein on viral growth. Observation of HAZV-infected cells revealed that this infection caused apoptosis, which was further characterized by DNA ladder and elevated caspase-3/7 activity. HAZV titers initially increased in cell culture, but after reaching the peak titer began to rapidly decline. HAZV particles were found to be very unstable in culture medium at 37 °C, and virus particles tend to lose infectivity at that point. HAZV N appears to inhibit apoptosis, thus can potentially support efficient viral propagation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yusuke Matsumoto
- Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, Wakayama Medical University, 811-1 Kimiidera, Wakayama, 641-8509, Japan
| | - Takashi Nouchi
- Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, Wakayama Medical University, 811-1 Kimiidera, Wakayama, 641-8509, Japan
| | - Keisuke Ohta
- Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, Wakayama Medical University, 811-1 Kimiidera, Wakayama, 641-8509, Japan
| | - Machiko Nishio
- Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, Wakayama Medical University, 811-1 Kimiidera, Wakayama, 641-8509, Japan.
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Yumine N, Matsumoto Y, Ohta K, Fukasawa M, Nishio M. Claudin-1 inhibits human parainfluenza virus type 2 dissemination. Virology 2019; 531:93-99. [PMID: 30856486 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2019.01.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2018] [Revised: 01/04/2019] [Accepted: 01/22/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Tight junctions enable epithelial cells to form physical barriers that act as an innate immune defense against respiratory infection. However, the involvement of tight junction molecules in paramyxovirus infections, which include various respiratory pathogens, has not been examined in detail. Human parainfluenza virus type 2 (hPIV2) infects airway epithelial cells and causes respiratory illness. In the present study, we found that hPIV2 infection of cultured cells induces expression of claudin-1 (CLDN1), an essential component of tight junctions. This induction seemed to be intrinsically restricted by V, an accessory protein that modulates various host responses, to enable efficient virus propagation. By generating CLDN1 over-expressing and knockout cell lines, we showed that CLDN1 is involved in the restriction of hPIV2 spread via cell-to-cell contact. Taken together, we identified CLDN1 an inhibitory factor for hPIV2 dissemination, and that its V protein acts to counter this.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natsuko Yumine
- Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, Wakayama Medical University, Wakayama, Japan
| | - Yusuke Matsumoto
- Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, Wakayama Medical University, Wakayama, Japan
| | - Keisuke Ohta
- Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, Wakayama Medical University, Wakayama, Japan
| | - Masayoshi Fukasawa
- Department of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Machiko Nishio
- Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, Wakayama Medical University, Wakayama, Japan.
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Ohtsuka J, Matsumoto Y, Ohta K, Fukumura M, Tsurudome M, Nosaka T, Nishio M. Nucleocytoplasmic shuttling of the human parainfluenza virus type 2 phosphoprotein. Virology 2018; 528:54-63. [PMID: 30576860 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2018.12.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2018] [Revised: 11/21/2018] [Accepted: 12/05/2018] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Human parainfluenza virus type 2 phosphoprotein (P) is an essential component of viral polymerase. The P gene encodes both P and accessory V proteins by a specific gene editing mechanism. Therefore, the N-terminal 164 amino acids of P protein are common to V protein. Interestingly, while P protein is located in the cytoplasm, V protein is found mainly in the nucleus. Using deletion mutants, we show the presence of a nuclear localization signal (NLS) in the P/V common domain, and a nuclear export signal (NES) in the C-terminal P specific region. The NLS region makes a complex with importin α5 or 7. In the presence of leptomycin B, P protein is retained in the nucleus, indicating that it contains a CRM1-dependent NES. We identified the NLS (65PVKPRRKK72) and the NES (225IIELLKGLDL234) using β-galactosidase fusion proteins. Moreover, nucleocytoplasmic shuttling of P protein appears to be important for efficient viral polymerase activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junpei Ohtsuka
- Department of Microbiology, Mie University Graduate School of Medicine, Mie, Japan; Biocomo Inc., Mie, Japan
| | - Yusuke Matsumoto
- Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, Wakayama Medical University, Wakayama, Japan
| | - Keisuke Ohta
- Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, Wakayama Medical University, Wakayama, Japan
| | - Masayuki Fukumura
- Department of Microbiology, Mie University Graduate School of Medicine, Mie, Japan; Biocomo Inc., Mie, Japan
| | - Masato Tsurudome
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Life and Health Sciences, Chubu University, Aichi, Japan
| | - Tetsuya Nosaka
- Department of Microbiology, Mie University Graduate School of Medicine, Mie, Japan
| | - Machiko Nishio
- Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, Wakayama Medical University, Wakayama, Japan.
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Ohta K, Matsumoto Y, Yumine N, Nishio M. The V protein of human parainfluenza virus type 2 promotes RhoA-induced filamentous actin formation. Virology 2018; 524:90-96. [DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2018.08.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2018] [Revised: 08/14/2018] [Accepted: 08/17/2018] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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Human parainfluenza virus type 2 polymerase complex recognizes leader promoters of other species belonging to the genus Rubulavirus. Med Microbiol Immunol 2017; 206:441-446. [PMID: 28884293 DOI: 10.1007/s00430-017-0520-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2017] [Accepted: 09/02/2017] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Leader sequence, located at the 3' terminus of paramyxovirus genomes, determines the degree of viral transcription and replication. The essential nucleotides in the leader sequence that influence viral propagation, however, have not been investigated in detail. In the present study, we show that polymerase complex of human parainfluenza virus type 2 (hPIV2) uses a luciferase-encoding hPIV2 mini-genome possessing the leader sequence from other closely related viruses as a template. Furthermore, we demonstrate that although hPIV2 polymerase complex can recognize the leader sequence of hPIV4B, mumps virus (MuV) and PIV5 as well as Newcastle disease virus (NDV), it cannot recognize measles virus, hPIV1, Sendai virus (SeV) or hPIV3. We could obtain the chimeric hPIV2 possessing the leader sequence from hPIV4B, MuV and PIV5, but not from other species, including NDV and SeV. These results reveal that although hPIV2 polymerase complex can recognize the leader sequence from rubulaviruses to achieve efficient viral infection, this does not apply to viruses belonging to other genus. A comparison of leader sequence nucleotides among paramyxoviruses highlights the importance of the conservation in the first 13 nucleotides for infectious hPIV2 growth.
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Ohta K, Matsumoto Y, Ito M, Nishio M. Tetherin antagonism by V proteins is a common trait among the genus Rubulavirus. Med Microbiol Immunol 2017; 206:319-326. [PMID: 28466381 DOI: 10.1007/s00430-017-0509-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2017] [Accepted: 04/26/2017] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Tetherin (BST-2/CD317/HM1.24) is an anti-viral factor that restricts the budding of several enveloped viruses. Most of these viruses have evolved to encode tetherin antagonists. Our previous study demonstrated that the growth of human parainfluenza virus type 2 (hPIV-2), a member of the genus Rubulavirus in the family Paramyxoviridae, was inhibited by tetherin, and its V protein decreases the amount of cell surface tetherin by the interaction. In the present study, we investigated whether tetherin inhibits the growth of other rubulaviruses including PIV-5, mumps virus (MuV), simian virus 41, and hPIV-4, and whether their V proteins act as tetherin antagonists. Plaque assay demonstrated that the growth of PIV-5 and MuV was inhibited by tetherin. Flow cytometry and immunoblot analyses revealed that the infection of PIV-5 and MuV caused reduction of cell surface tetherin without affecting total amount of tetherin. Immunoprecipitation analysis showed that all V proteins of rubulaviruses tested bound to tetherin. These results suggest that tetherin antagonism by V proteins is common among the genus Rubulavirus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keisuke Ohta
- Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, Wakayama Medical University, 811-1, Kimiidera, Wakayama, 641-8509, Japan
| | - Yusuke Matsumoto
- Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, Wakayama Medical University, 811-1, Kimiidera, Wakayama, 641-8509, Japan
| | - Morihiro Ito
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Life and Health Sciences, Chubu University, Aichi, Japan
| | - Machiko Nishio
- Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, Wakayama Medical University, 811-1, Kimiidera, Wakayama, 641-8509, Japan.
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Graf1 Controls the Growth of Human Parainfluenza Virus Type 2 through Inactivation of RhoA Signaling. J Virol 2016; 90:9394-405. [PMID: 27512058 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01471-16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2016] [Accepted: 08/01/2016] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED Rho GTPases are involved in a variety of cellular activities and are regulated by guanine nucleotide exchange factors and GTPase-activating proteins (GAPs). We found that the activation of Rho GTPases by lysophosphatidic acid promotes the growth of human parainfluenza virus type 2 (hPIV-2). Furthermore, hPIV-2 infection causes activation of RhoA, a Rho GTPase. We hypothesized that Graf1 (also known as ARHGAP26), a GAP, regulates hPIV-2 growth by controlling RhoA signaling. Immunofluorescence analysis showed that hPIV-2 infection altered Graf1 localization from a homogenous distribution within the cytoplasm to granules. Graf1 colocalized with hPIV-2 P, NP, and L proteins. Graf1 interacts with P and V proteins via their N-terminal common region, and the C-terminal Src homology 3 domain-containing region of Graf1 is important for these interactions. In HEK293 cells constitutively expressing Graf1, hPIV-2 growth was inhibited, and RhoA activation was not observed during hPIV-2 infection. In contrast, Graf1 knockdown restored hPIV-2 growth and RhoA activation. Overexpression of hPIV-2 P and V proteins enhanced hPIV-2-induced RhoA activation. These results collectively suggested that hPIV-2 P and V proteins enhanced hPIV-2 growth by binding to Graf1 and that Graf1 inhibits hPIV-2 growth through RhoA inactivation. IMPORTANCE Robust growth of hPIV-2 requires Rho activation. hPIV-2 infection causes RhoA activation, which is suppressed by Graf1. Graf1 colocalizes with viral RNP (vRNP) in hPIV-2-infected cells. We found that Graf1 interacts with hPIV-2 P and V proteins. We also identified regions in these proteins which are important for this interaction. hPIV-2 P and V proteins enhanced the hPIV-2 growth via binding to Graf1, while Graf1 inhibited hPIV-2 growth through RhoA inactivation.
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Parainfluenza virus chimeric mini-replicons indicate a novel regulatory element in the leader promoter. J Gen Virol 2016; 97:1520-1530. [DOI: 10.1099/jgv.0.000479] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
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Matsumoto Y, Ohta K, Yumine N, Goto H, Nishio M. Identification of two essential aspartates for polymerase activity in parainfluenza virus L protein by a minireplicon system expressing secretory luciferase. Microbiol Immunol 2016; 59:676-83. [PMID: 26446904 DOI: 10.1111/1348-0421.12329] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2015] [Revised: 09/11/2015] [Accepted: 10/03/2015] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Gene expression of nonsegmented negative-strand RNA viruses (nsNSVs) such as parainfluenza viruses requires the RNA synthesis activity of their polymerase L protein; however, the detailed mechanism of this process is poorly understood. In this study, a parainfluenza minireplicon assay expressing secretory Gaussia luciferase (Gluc) was established to analyze large protein (L) activity. Measurement of Gluc expression in the culture medium of cells transfected with the minigenome and viral polymerase components enabled quick and concise calculation of L activity. By comparing the amino acid sequences in conserved region III (CRIII), a putative polymerase-active domain of the L protein, two strictly conserved aspartates were identified in all families of nsNSV. A series of L mutants from human parainfluenza virus type 2 and parainfluenza virus type 5 showed that these aspartates are necessary for reporter gene expression. It was also confirmed that these aspartates are important for the production of viral mRNA and antigenome cRNA, but not for a polymerase-complex formation. These findings suggest that these two aspartates are key players in the nucleotidyl transfer reaction using two metal ions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yusuke Matsumoto
- Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, Wakayama Medical University, 811-1 Kimiidera, Wakayama, 641-8509, Japan
| | - Keisuke Ohta
- Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, Wakayama Medical University, 811-1 Kimiidera, Wakayama, 641-8509, Japan
| | - Natsuko Yumine
- Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, Wakayama Medical University, 811-1 Kimiidera, Wakayama, 641-8509, Japan
| | - Hideo Goto
- Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, Wakayama Medical University, 811-1 Kimiidera, Wakayama, 641-8509, Japan
| | - Machiko Nishio
- Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, Wakayama Medical University, 811-1 Kimiidera, Wakayama, 641-8509, Japan
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Ohta K, Goto H, Yumine N, Nishio M. Human parainfluenza virus type 2 V protein inhibits and antagonizes tetherin. J Gen Virol 2015; 97:561-570. [PMID: 26675672 DOI: 10.1099/jgv.0.000373] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Tetherin (BST-2/CD317/HM1.24) is an antiviral membrane protein that prevents the release of enveloped viruses from the cell surface. We found that the growth of human parainfluenza virus type 2 (hPIV-2), but not that of V protein-deficient recombinant hPIV-2, was inhibited by tetherin. V protein immunoprecipitates with tetherin, and this interaction requires its C-terminal Trp residues. The glycosyl phosphatidylinositol attachment signal of tetherin, but not its cytoplasmic tail, was necessary for its binding with V. The distribution of the V protein clearly changed when co-expressed with tetherin in plasmid-transfected cells. hPIV-2 infection of HeLa cells reduced cell surface tetherin without affecting total cellular tetherin. This reduction also occurred in HeLa cells constitutively expressing V, whereas mutated V protein did not affect the cell surface tetherin. Our results suggest that hPIV-2 V protein antagonizes tetherin by binding it and reducing its presence at the cell surface.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Ohta
- Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, Wakayama Medical University, Wakayama, Japan
| | - H Goto
- Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, Wakayama Medical University, Wakayama, Japan
| | - N Yumine
- Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, Wakayama Medical University, Wakayama, Japan
| | - M Nishio
- Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, Wakayama Medical University, Wakayama, Japan
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Goto H, Ihira H, Morishita K, Tsuchiya M, Ohta K, Yumine N, Tsurudome M, Nishio M. Enhanced growth of influenza A virus by coinfection with human parainfluenza virus type 2. Med Microbiol Immunol 2015; 205:209-18. [PMID: 26582554 PMCID: PMC7086786 DOI: 10.1007/s00430-015-0441-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2015] [Accepted: 11/08/2015] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
It has been reported that dual or multiple viruses can coinfect epithelial cells of the respiratory tract. However, little has been reported on in vitro interactions of coinfected viruses. To explore how coinfection of different viruses affects their biological property, we examined growth of influenza A virus (IAV) and human parainfluenza virus type 2 (hPIV2) during coinfection of Vero cells. We found that IAV growth was enhanced by coinfection with hPIV2. The enhanced growth of IAV was not reproduced by coinfection with an hPIV2 mutant with reduced cell fusion activity, or by ectopic expression of the V protein of hPIV2. In contrast, induction of cell fusion by ectopic expression of the hPIV2 HN and F proteins augments IAV growth. hPIV2 coinfection supported IAV growth in cells originated from the respiratory epithelium. The enhancement correlated closely with cell fusion ability of hPIV2 in those cells. These results indicate that cell fusion induced by hPIV2 infection is beneficial to IAV replication and that enhanced viral replication by coinfection with different viruses can modify their pathological consequences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hideo Goto
- Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, Wakayama Medical University, Wakayama, Japan
| | - Hironobu Ihira
- Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, Wakayama Medical University, Wakayama, Japan
| | - Keiichi Morishita
- Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, Wakayama Medical University, Wakayama, Japan
| | - Mitsuki Tsuchiya
- Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, Wakayama Medical University, Wakayama, Japan
| | - Keisuke Ohta
- Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, Wakayama Medical University, Wakayama, Japan
| | - Natsuko Yumine
- Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, Wakayama Medical University, Wakayama, Japan
| | - Masato Tsurudome
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Mie University Graduate School of Medicine, Mie, Japan
| | - Machiko Nishio
- Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, Wakayama Medical University, Wakayama, Japan.
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Preexposure to PM2.5 exacerbates acute viral myocarditis associated with Th17 cell. Int J Cardiol 2013; 168:3837-45. [PMID: 23849969 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijcard.2013.06.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2012] [Revised: 05/07/2013] [Accepted: 06/20/2013] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND It is increasingly recognized that exposure to ambient fine particles (PM(2.5)) is a risk factor for the development of cardiovascular events. This study was to explore the link between PM(2.5) exposure and viral myocarditis in the functional mechanism of Th17 cells. METHODS Male BALB/c mice were administered an intratracheal (i.t.) instillation of 10 mg/kg b.w. PM(2.5) particles. Twenty-four hours later, the mice were injected intraperitoneally (i.p.) with 100 μl of coxsackievirus B3 (CVB3) diluted in Eagle's minimal essential medium (EMEM). Seven days after the treatment, pulmonary and cardiac tissues were examined. RESULTS The results showed that preexposure to PM(2.5) increased the cardiac and pulmonary injuries and viral replication in the heart of CVB3-infected mice along with an increase in CD4(+) IL-17(+) cells in the spleen and heart. The mRNA expressions of interleukin-17A (IL-17A), perforin, transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) and RORγt were up-regulated in PM(2.5)-pretreated mice than that in the virus-treated mice. Additionally, compared to virus-treated mice, the cardiac protein expressions of IL-17A and matrix metalloproteinases-2 (MMP-2) were increased, but interferon-γ (IFN-γ) and metalloproteinases-1 (TIMP-1) were decreased in PM(2.5)-pretreated mice. Interestingly, PM(2.5) caused IFN-γ decreased, whereas CVB3 caused a dramatic increase in IFN-γ. Subsequently, preexposure to PM(2.5) induced a slight increase of IFN-γ in the sera of CVB3-infected mice. CONCLUSIONS These results demonstrated that PM(2.5) exposure exacerbated virus-induced myocarditis possibly through the increase in Th17-mediated viral replication, perforin response and imbalance of MMP-2/TIMP-1. These findings provided supportive evidence for the epidemiological research that ambient particles could increase the occurrence and development of cardiovascular diseases.
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Identification of human parainfluenza virus type 2 (HPIV-2) V protein amino acid residues that reduce binding of V to MDA5 and attenuate HPIV-2 replication in nonhuman primates. J Virol 2011; 85:4007-19. [PMID: 21289116 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02542-10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Human parainfluenza virus type 2 (HPIV-2), an important pediatric respiratory pathogen, encodes a V protein that inhibits type I interferon (IFN) induction and signaling. Using reverse genetics, we attempted the recovery of a panel of V mutant viruses that individually contained one of six cysteine-to-serine (residues 193, 197, 209, 211, 214, and 218) substitutions, one of two paired charge-to-alanine (R175A/R176A and R205A/K206A) substitutions, or a histidine-to-phenylalanine (H174F) substitution. This mutagenesis was performed using a cDNA-derived HPIV-2 virus that expressed the V and P coding sequences from separate mRNAs. Of the cysteine substitutions, only C193S, C214S, and C218S yielded viable virus, and only the C214S mutant replicated well enough for further analysis. The H174F, R175A/R176A, and R205A/K206A mutants were viable and replicated well. The H174F and R205A/K206A mutants did not differ from the wild-type (WT) V in their ability to physically interact with MDA5, a cytoplasmic sensor of nonself RNA that induces type I IFN. Like WT HPIV-2, these mutants inhibited IFN-β induction and replicated efficiently in African green monkeys (AGMs). In contrast, the C214S and R175A/R176A mutants did not bind MDA5 efficiently, did not inhibit interferon regulatory factor 3 (IRF3) dimerization or IFN-β induction, and were attenuated in AGMs. These findings indicate that V binding to MDA5 is important for HPIV-2 virulence in nonhuman primates and that some V protein residues involved in MDA5 binding are not essential for efficient HPIV-2 growth in vitro. Using a transient expression system, 20 additional mutant V proteins were screened for MDA5 binding, and the region spanning residues 175 to 180 was found to be essential for this activity.
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ALIX/AIP1 is required for NP incorporation into Mopeia virus Z-induced virus-like particles. J Virol 2011; 85:3631-41. [PMID: 21248028 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01984-10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
During virus particle assembly, the arenavirus nucleoprotein (NP) associates with the viral genome to form nucleocapsids, which ultimately become incorporated into new virions at the cell membrane. Virion release is facilitated by the viral matrix Z protein through its interaction with the cellular endosomal sorting complex required for transport (ESCRT) machinery. However, the mechanism of nucleocapsid incorporation into virions is not well understood. Here, we demonstrate that ALIX/AIP1, an ESCRT-associated host protein, is required for the incorporation of the NP of Mopeia virus, a close relative of Lassa virus, into Z-induced virus-like particles (VLPs). Furthermore, we show that the Bro1 domain of ALIX/AIP1 interacts with the NP and Z proteins simultaneously, facilitating their interaction, and we identify residues 342 to 399 of NP as being necessary for its interaction with ALIX/AIP1. Our observations suggest a potential role for ALIX/AIP1 in linking Mopeia virus NP to Z and the budding apparatus, thereby promoting NP incorporation into virions.
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Human parainfluenza virus type 2 L protein regions required for interaction with other viral proteins and mRNA capping. J Virol 2010; 85:725-32. [PMID: 21068245 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01226-10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The large RNA polymerase (L) protein of human parainfluenza virus type 2 (hPIV2) binds the nucleocapsid, phosphoprotein, and V protein, as well as itself, and these interactions are essential for transcription and replication of the viral RNA genome. Although all of these interactions were found to be mediated through the domains within the N terminus of L, the C terminus of the L protein was also required for minigenome reporter gene expression. We have identified a highly conserved rubulavirus domain near the C terminus of the L protein that is required for mRNA synthesis but not for genome replication. Remarkably, this region of L shares homology with a conserved region of cellular capping enzymes that binds GTP and forms a lysyl-GMP enzyme intermediate, the first step in the cellular capping reaction. We propose that this conserved region of L also binds GTP (or GDP) to carry out the second step of the unconventional nonsegmented negative-strand virus capping reaction.
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Schaap-Nutt A, D'Angelo C, Amaro-Carambot E, Nolan SM, Davis S, Wise SM, Higgins C, Bradley K, Kim O, Mayor R, Skiadopoulos MH, Collins PL, Murphy BR, Schmidt AC. Recombinant human parainfluenza virus type 2 with mutations in V that permit cellular interferon signaling are not attenuated in non-human primates. Virology 2010; 406:65-79. [PMID: 20667570 PMCID: PMC2932766 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2010.07.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2010] [Revised: 06/15/2010] [Accepted: 07/06/2010] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The HPIV2 V protein inhibits type I interferon (IFN) induction and signaling. To manipulate the V protein, whose coding sequence overlaps that of the polymerase-associated phosphoprotein (P), without altering the P protein, we generated an HPIV2 virus in which P and V are expressed from separate genes (rHPIV2-P+V). rHPIV2-P+V replicated like HPIV2-WT in vitro and in non-human primates. HPIV2-P+V was modified by introducing two separate mutations into the V protein to create rHPIV2-L101E/L102E and rHPIV2-Delta122-127. In contrast to HPIV2-WT, both mutant viruses were unable to degrade STAT2, leaving virus-infected cells susceptible to IFN. Neither mutant, nor HPIV2-WT, induced significant amounts of IFN-beta in infected cells. Surprisingly, neither rHPIV2-L101E/L102E nor rHPIV2-Delta122-127 was attenuated in two species of non-human primates. This indicates that loss of HPIV2's ability to inhibit IFN signaling is insufficient to attenuate virus replication in vivo as long as IFN induction is still inhibited.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne Schaap-Nutt
- Laboratory of Infectious Diseases, RNA Viruses Section, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Department of Health and Human Services, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.
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Irie T, Inoue M, Sakaguchi T. Significance of the YLDL motif in the M protein and Alix/AIP1 for Sendai virus budding in the context of virus infection. Virology 2010; 405:334-41. [PMID: 20605035 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2010.06.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2010] [Revised: 04/19/2010] [Accepted: 06/15/2010] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Sendai virus (SeV) M protein has a YLDL motif, which is essential for budding of virus-like particles (VLPs) by expression of the M protein. We investigated the importance of the YLDL motif for SeV budding. Virus budding of an M-deficient SeV was not rescued by transient expression of motif mutants, M-A2 (ALDA) and M-A4 (AAAA), and viruses possessing those mutations hardly propagated in cultured cells. However, a budding-competent revertant virus, SeV M-A2R, was obtained from SeV M-A2, and nucleotide sequencing showed an ALDV sequence at the motif instead of the ALDA sequence derived from M-A2. The M-A2R protein rescued budding of an M-deficient SeV, formed VLPs when expressed with viral C protein, and restored the capacity to bind with Alix/AIP1. The results indicate that the YLDL motif is essential for efficient budding in the context of virus infection and suggest involvement of Alix/AIP1 in SeV budding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takashi Irie
- Department of Virology, Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Hiroshima University, Hiroshima 734-8551, Japan
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Harrison MS, Sakaguchi T, Schmitt AP. Paramyxovirus assembly and budding: building particles that transmit infections. Int J Biochem Cell Biol 2010; 42:1416-29. [PMID: 20398786 DOI: 10.1016/j.biocel.2010.04.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 127] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2010] [Revised: 04/05/2010] [Accepted: 04/07/2010] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
The paramyxoviruses define a diverse group of enveloped RNA viruses that includes a number of important human and animal pathogens. Examples include human respiratory syncytial virus and the human parainfluenza viruses, which cause respiratory illnesses in young children and the elderly; measles and mumps viruses, which have caused recent resurgences of disease in developed countries; the zoonotic Hendra and Nipah viruses, which have caused several outbreaks of fatal disease in Australia and Asia; and Newcastle disease virus, which infects chickens and other avian species. Like other enveloped viruses, paramyxoviruses form particles that assemble and bud from cellular membranes, allowing the transmission of infections to new cells and hosts. Here, we review recent advances that have improved our understanding of events involved in paramyxovirus particle formation. Contributions of viral matrix proteins, glycoproteins, nucleocapsid proteins, and accessory proteins to particle formation are discussed, as well as the importance of host factor recruitment for efficient virus budding. Trafficking of viral structural components within infected cells is described, together with mechanisms that allow for the selection of specific sites on cellular membranes for the coalescence of viral proteins in preparation of bud formation and virion release.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megan S Harrison
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, and Center for Molecular Immunology and Infectious Disease, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, United States
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Schaap-Nutt A, D'Angelo C, Scull MA, Amaro-Carambot E, Nishio M, Pickles RJ, Collins PL, Murphy BR, Schmidt AC. Human parainfluenza virus type 2 V protein inhibits interferon production and signaling and is required for replication in non-human primates. Virology 2009; 397:285-98. [PMID: 19969320 PMCID: PMC2822077 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2009.11.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2009] [Revised: 08/19/2009] [Accepted: 11/10/2009] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
In wild-type human parainfluenza virus type 2 (WT HPIV2), one gene (the P/V gene) encodes both the polymerase-associated phosphoprotein (P) and the accessory V protein. We generated a HPIV2 virus (rHPIV2-Vko) in which the P/V gene encodes only the P protein to examine the role of V in replication in vivo and as a potential live attenuated virus vaccine. Preventing expression of V protein severely impaired virus recovery from cDNA and growth in vitro, particularly in IFN-competent cells. rHPIV2-Vko, unlike WT HPIV2, strongly induced IFN-β and permitted IFN signaling, leading to establishment of a robust antiviral state. rHPIV2-Vko infection induced extensive syncytia and cytopathicity that was due to both apoptosis and necrosis. Replication of rHPIV2-Vko was highly restricted in the respiratory tract of African green monkeys and in differentiated primary human airway epithelial (HAE) cultures, suggesting that V protein is essential for efficient replication of HPIV2 in organized epithelial cells and that rHPIV2-Vko is over-attenuated for use as a live attenuated vaccine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne Schaap-Nutt
- Laboratory of Infectious Diseases, RNA Viruses Section, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Department of Health and Human Services, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.
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Abstract
The ESCRT pathway facilitates membrane fission events during enveloped virus budding, multivesicular body formation, and cytokinesis. To promote HIV budding and cytokinesis, the ALIX protein must bind and recruit CHMP4 subunits of the ESCRT-III complex, which in turn participate in essential membrane remodeling functions. Here, we report that the Bro1 domain of ALIX binds specifically to C-terminal residues of the human CHMP4 proteins (CHMP4A-C). Crystal structures of the complexes reveal that the CHMP4 C-terminal peptides form amphipathic helices that bind across the conserved concave surface of ALIX(Bro1). ALIX-dependent HIV-1 budding is blocked by mutations in exposed ALIX(Bro1) residues that help contribute to the binding sites for three essential hydrophobic residues that are displayed on one side of the CHMP4 recognition helix (M/L/IxxLxxW). The homologous CHMP1-3 classes of ESCRT-III proteins also have C-terminal amphipathic helices, but, in those cases, the three hydrophobic residues are arrayed with L/I/MxxxLxxL spacing. Thus, the distinct patterns of hydrophobic residues provide a "code" that allows the different ESCRT-III subunits to bind different ESCRT pathway partners, with CHMP1-3 proteins binding MIT domain-containing proteins, such as VPS4 and Vta1/LIP5, and CHMP4 proteins binding Bro1 domain-containing proteins, such as ALIX.
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Human parainfluenza virus type 2 V protein inhibits genome replication by binding to the L protein: possible role in promoting viral fitness. J Virol 2008; 82:6130-8. [PMID: 18417591 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02635-07] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
The human parainfluenza virus type 2 (hPIV2) V protein plays important roles in inhibiting the host interferon response and promoting virus growth, but its role in hPIV2 replication and transcription is not clear. A green fluorescent protein (GFP)-expressing a negative-sense minigenomic construct of hPIV2 has been established by standard technology, with helper plasmids expressing the nucleocapsid protein (NP), phosphoprotein (P), and large RNA polymerase (L) protein, to examine the role of V protein. We found that the simultaneous expression of wild-type V protein in the minigenome system inhibited GFP expression, at least in part, by inhibiting minigenome replication. In contrast, expression of C terminally truncated or mutant hPIV2 V proteins had no effect. Moreover, the V protein of simian virus 41, the rubulavirus most closely related virus to hPIV2, also inhibited GFP expression, whereas that of PIV5, a more distantly related rubulavirus, did not. Using these other rubulavirus V proteins, as well as various mutant hPIV2 V proteins, we found that the ability of V protein to inhibit GFP expression correlated with its ability to bind to L protein via its C-terminal V protein-specific region, but there was no correlation with NP binding. A possible role for this inhibition of genome replication in promoting viral fitness is discussed.
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