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Li Y, Li R, Mo X, Wang Y, Yin J, Bergmann SM, Ren Y, Pan H, Shi C, Zhang D, Wang Q. Development of real-time recombinase polymerase amplification (RPA) and RPA combined with lateral flow dipstick (LFD) assays for the rapid and sensitive detection of cyprinid herpesvirus 3. JOURNAL OF FISH DISEASES 2024; 47:e13960. [PMID: 38708552 DOI: 10.1111/jfd.13960] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2024] [Revised: 04/03/2024] [Accepted: 04/14/2024] [Indexed: 05/07/2024]
Abstract
In this issue, we established rapid, cost-effective, and simple detection methods including recombines polymerase amplification with lateral flow dipstick (RPA-LFD) and real-time RPA for cyprinid herpesvirus 3(CyHV-3), and evaluated their sensitivity, specificity, and applicability, the real-time RPA method could achieve sensitive diagnosis of CyHV-3 within 1.3 copies per reaction, respectively. The real-time RPA method is 10-fold more sensitive than RPA-LFD method. The exact number of CyHV-3 can be calculated in each sample by real-time RPA. The sera from koi also can be tested in these methods. In addition, no cross-reaction was observed with other related pathogens, including carp oedema virus (CEV), spring viraemia of carp virus (SVCV), cyprinid herpesvirus 1(CyHV-1), cyprinid herpesvirus 2(CyHV-2), type I grass carp reovirus (GCRV-I), type II GCRV (GCRV-II), type III GCRV (GCRV-III), and Aeromonas hydrophila.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yingying Li
- Key Laboratory of Fishery Drug Development of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Aquatic Animal Immunology and Sustainable Aquaculture, Pearl River Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Guangzhou, China
| | - Ruifan Li
- Key Laboratory of Fishery Drug Development of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Aquatic Animal Immunology and Sustainable Aquaculture, Pearl River Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xubing Mo
- Key Laboratory of Fishery Drug Development of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Aquatic Animal Immunology and Sustainable Aquaculture, Pearl River Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yingying Wang
- Key Laboratory of Fishery Drug Development of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Aquatic Animal Immunology and Sustainable Aquaculture, Pearl River Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jiyuan Yin
- Key Laboratory of Fishery Drug Development of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Aquatic Animal Immunology and Sustainable Aquaculture, Pearl River Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Guangzhou, China
| | - Sven M Bergmann
- Germany Reference Laboratory for KHVD, Institute of Infectology, Friedrich-Loffler-Institut (FLI), Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Yan Ren
- Key Laboratory of Fishery Drug Development of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Aquatic Animal Immunology and Sustainable Aquaculture, Pearl River Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Guangzhou, China
| | - Houjun Pan
- Key Laboratory of Fishery Drug Development of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Aquatic Animal Immunology and Sustainable Aquaculture, Pearl River Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Guangzhou, China
| | - Cunbin Shi
- Key Laboratory of Fishery Drug Development of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Aquatic Animal Immunology and Sustainable Aquaculture, Pearl River Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Guangzhou, China
| | - Defeng Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Fishery Drug Development of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Aquatic Animal Immunology and Sustainable Aquaculture, Pearl River Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Guangzhou, China
| | - Qing Wang
- Key Laboratory of Fishery Drug Development of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Aquatic Animal Immunology and Sustainable Aquaculture, Pearl River Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Guangzhou, China
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Cano I, Blaker E, Hartnell D, Farbos A, Moore KA, Cobb A, Santos EM, van Aerle R. Transcriptomic Responses to Koi Herpesvirus in Isolated Blood Leukocytes from Infected Common Carp. Viruses 2024; 16:380. [PMID: 38543746 PMCID: PMC10974277 DOI: 10.3390/v16030380] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2023] [Revised: 02/08/2024] [Accepted: 02/23/2024] [Indexed: 04/01/2024] Open
Abstract
Koi herpesvirus (KHV, CyHV-3) causes severe economic losses in carp farms. Its eradication is challenging due to the establishment of latency in blood leukocytes and other tissues. To understand the molecular mechanisms leading to KHV infection in leukocytes, common carp were bath-exposed to KHV at 17 °C. After confirming the presence of viral transcripts in blood leukocytes at ten days post infection, RNA-Seq was performed on peripheral blood leukocytes on the Illumina NovaSeq. KHV infection triggered a robust immune response mediated by pattern recognition receptors, mainly toll-like receptors (tlr2, tlr5, tlr7, and tlr13), urokinase plasminogen activator surface receptor-like, galectin proteins, and lipid mediators such as leukotriene B4 receptor 1. Enriched pathways showed increased mitochondria oxidative phosphorylation and the activation of signalling pathways such as mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). KHV-infected leukocytes showed low production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and glutathione metabolism, high iron export and phagocytosis activity, and low autophagy. Macrophage polarization was deduced from the up-regulation of genes such as arginase non-hepatic 1-like, macrophage mannose receptor-1, crem, il-10, and il-13 receptors, while markers for cytotoxic T cells were observed to be down-regulated. Further work is required to characterise these leukocyte subsets and the molecular events leading to KHV latency in blood leukocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irene Cano
- International Centre of Excellence for Aquatic Animal Health, Cefas Laboratory, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK; (E.B.); (D.H.); (A.C.); (R.v.A.)
- Centre for Sustainable Aquaculture Futures, University of Exeter, Exeter EX2 4TH, UK;
| | - Ellen Blaker
- International Centre of Excellence for Aquatic Animal Health, Cefas Laboratory, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK; (E.B.); (D.H.); (A.C.); (R.v.A.)
| | - David Hartnell
- International Centre of Excellence for Aquatic Animal Health, Cefas Laboratory, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK; (E.B.); (D.H.); (A.C.); (R.v.A.)
| | - Audrey Farbos
- Biosciences, Faculty of Life and Health Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter EX2 4TH, UK; (A.F.); (K.A.M.)
| | - Karen A. Moore
- Biosciences, Faculty of Life and Health Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter EX2 4TH, UK; (A.F.); (K.A.M.)
| | - Adele Cobb
- International Centre of Excellence for Aquatic Animal Health, Cefas Laboratory, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK; (E.B.); (D.H.); (A.C.); (R.v.A.)
| | - Eduarda M. Santos
- Centre for Sustainable Aquaculture Futures, University of Exeter, Exeter EX2 4TH, UK;
- Biosciences, Faculty of Life and Health Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter EX2 4TH, UK; (A.F.); (K.A.M.)
| | - Ronny van Aerle
- International Centre of Excellence for Aquatic Animal Health, Cefas Laboratory, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK; (E.B.); (D.H.); (A.C.); (R.v.A.)
- Centre for Sustainable Aquaculture Futures, University of Exeter, Exeter EX2 4TH, UK;
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Dorfman B, Marcos-Hadad E, Tadmor-Levi R, David L. Disease resistance and infectivity of virus susceptible and resistant common carp strains. Sci Rep 2024; 14:4677. [PMID: 38409362 PMCID: PMC10897132 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-55133-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2023] [Accepted: 02/20/2024] [Indexed: 02/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Infectious diseases challenge health and welfare of humans and animals. Unlike for humans, breeding of genetically resistant animals is a sustainable solution, also providing unique research opportunities. Chances to survive a disease are improved by disease resistance, but depend also on chances to get infected and infect others. Considerable knowledge exists on chances of susceptible and resistant animals to survive a disease, yet, almost none on their infectivity and if and how resistance and infectivity correlate. Common carp (Cyprinus carpio) is widely produced in aquaculture, suffering significantly from a disease caused by cyprinid herpes virus type 3 (CyHV-3). Here, the infectivity of disease-resistant and susceptible fish types was tested by playing roles of shedders (infecting) and cohabitants (infected) in all four type-role combinations. Resistant shedders restricted spleen viral load and survived more than susceptible ones. However, mortality of susceptible cohabitants infected by resistant shedders was lower than that of resistant cohabitants infected by susceptible shedders. Virus levels in water were lower in tanks with resistant shedders leading to lower spleen viral loads in cohabitants. Thus, we empirically demonstrated that disease resistant fish survive better and infect less, with implications to epidemiology in general and to the benefit of aquaculture production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Batya Dorfman
- Department of Animal Sciences, RH Smith Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Environment, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Evgeniya Marcos-Hadad
- Department of Animal Sciences, RH Smith Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Environment, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Roni Tadmor-Levi
- Department of Animal Sciences, RH Smith Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Environment, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Lior David
- Department of Animal Sciences, RH Smith Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Environment, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Rehovot, Israel.
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Matsuoka S, Petri G, Larson K, Behnke A, Wang X, Peng M, Spagnoli S, Lohr C, Milston-Clements R, Divilov K, Jin L. Evaluation of Histone Demethylase Inhibitor ML324 and Acyclovir against Cyprinid herpesvirus 3 Infection. Viruses 2023; 15:163. [PMID: 36680202 PMCID: PMC9863241 DOI: 10.3390/v15010163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2022] [Revised: 12/30/2022] [Accepted: 01/01/2023] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Cyprinid herpesvirus 3 (CyHV-3) can cause severe disease in koi and common carp (Cyprinus carpio). Currently, no effective treatment is available against CyHV-3 infection in koi. Both LSD1 and JMJD2 are histone demethylases (HD) and are critical for immediate-early (IE) gene activation essential for lytic herpesvirus replication. OG-L002 and ML324 are newly discovered specific inhibitors of LSD1 and JMJD2, respectively. Here, HD inhibitors were compared with acyclovir (ACV) against CyHV-3 infection in vitro and in vivo. ML324, at 20-50 µM, can completely block ~1 × 103 PFU CyHV-3 replication in vitro, while OG-L002 at 20 µM and 50 µM can produce 96% and 98% inhibition, respectively. Only about 94% inhibition of ~1 × 103 PFU CyHV-3 replication was observed in cells treated with ACV at 50 µM. As expected, CyHV-3 IE gene transcription of ORF139 and ORF155 was blocked within 72 h post-infection (hpi) in the presence of 20 µM ML324. No detectable cytotoxicity was observed in KF-1 or CCB cells treated for 24 h with 1 to 50 µM ML324. A significant reduction of CyHV-3 replication was observed in ~6-month-old infected koi treated with 20 µM ML324 in an immersion bath for 3-4 h at 1-, 3-, and 5-days post-infection compared to the control and ACV treatments. Under heat stress, 50-70% of 3-4-month-old koi survived CyHV-3 infection when they were treated daily with 20 µM ML324 in an immersion bath for 3-4 h within the first 5 d post-infection (dpi), compared to 11-19% and 22-27% of koi in the control and ACV treatments, respectively. Our study demonstrates that ML324 has the potential to be used against CyHV-3 infection in koi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shelby Matsuoka
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA
| | - Gloria Petri
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA
| | - Kristen Larson
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA
| | - Alexandra Behnke
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA
| | - Xisheng Wang
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA
| | - Muhui Peng
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA
| | - Sean Spagnoli
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA
| | - Christiane Lohr
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA
| | - Ruth Milston-Clements
- Department of Microbiology, College of Science, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA
| | - Konstantin Divilov
- Department of Fisheries, Wildlife, and Conservation Sciences, Oregon State University, Newport, OR 97365, USA
| | - Ling Jin
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA
- Department of Microbiology, College of Science, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA
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McDermott C, Palmeiro B. Updates on Selected Emerging Infectious Diseases of Ornamental Fish. Vet Clin North Am Exot Anim Pract 2020; 23:413-428. [PMID: 32327045 DOI: 10.1016/j.cvex.2020.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Emerging infectious diseases of ornamental fish are discussed with special focus on clinical relevance, detection, and treatment, where applicable. Important emerging infectious diseases of fish include goldfish herpesvirus, koi herpesvirus, carp edema virus, Erysipelothrix, Edwardsiella ictaluri, Edwardseilla piscicida, and Francisella. Some diseases are more species or genus specific, but many emerging diseases do not seem to have a species preference and affect a variety of species worldwide. Proper husbandry and biosecurity with a disease detection plan for ornamental fish is essential to monitor and prevent future outbreaks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Colin McDermott
- Zodiac Pet and Exotic Hospital, Victoria Centre, Shop 101A, 1/F, 15 Watson Road, Fortress Hill, Hong Kong.
| | - Brian Palmeiro
- Lehigh Valley Veterinary Dermatology & Fish Hospital, Pet Fish Doctor, 4580 Crackersport Road, Allentown, PA 18104, USA
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Wei C, Kakazu T, Chuah QY, Tanaka M, Kato G, Sano M. Reactivation of cyprinid herpesvirus 2 (CyHV-2) in asymptomatic surviving goldfish Carassius auratus (L.) under immunosuppression. FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2020; 103:302-309. [PMID: 32439507 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2020.05.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2020] [Revised: 05/04/2020] [Accepted: 05/07/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Cyprinid herpesvirus 2 (CyHV-2) is a highly contagious pathogen of goldfish (Carassius auratus) and Prussian carp (Carassius auratus gibelio) causing herpesviral hematopoietic necrosis. Our previous study revealed that CyHV-2 can persistently infect the kidney and spleen of goldfish that recovered from a primary infection. In this study, we tried to identify the cells persistently infected with the virus in surviving fish and investigated virus reactivation in the survivors injected with immunosuppressants, namely dexamethasone (Dex) and cyclosporine A (CsA). Virus DNA was detected from the monocytes that were isolated from the trunk kidney of the asymptomatic survivors, suggesting that monocytes/macrophages are major cells that may be persistently infected with CyHV-2. A significant increase of virus DNA levels was detected in the group injected with Dex at 10 and 21 days post-injection (dpi). In the fish group injected with CsA, the virus DNA level was the same as that in the control group at 10 dpi but increased in some organs at 21 dpi. Compared with Dex-injected fish at 10 dpi, the group injected with both Dex and CsA showed a greater increase in virus DNA levels. The gene expression of phagocytosis-associated genes, major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II and p47phox, and anti-virus antibody levels increased in the CsA group due to virus reactivation in the infected cells but not in the Dex and Dex & CsA groups, indicating that Dex effectively suppressed monocyte/macrophage function and antibody production. In addition, recombinant interferon γ (IFNγ) supplementation in the kidney leukocyte culture that was isolated from survivors showed a reduction of virus DNA. CsA may inhibit T-helper 1 (Th1) cells and consequently IFNγ production, causing a synergetic effect with Dex on virus reactivation. The results suggest that the activity of monocytes/macrophages stimulated by IFNγ can relate to virus latency and reactivation in asymptomatic virus carriers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chang Wei
- Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, Tokyo, 108-8477, Japan
| | - Taichi Kakazu
- Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, Tokyo, 108-8477, Japan
| | - Qiu Yuan Chuah
- Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, Tokyo, 108-8477, Japan
| | - Mikio Tanaka
- Saitama Fisheries Research Institute, Saitama, 347-0011, Japan
| | - Goshi Kato
- Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, Tokyo, 108-8477, Japan
| | - Motohiko Sano
- Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, Tokyo, 108-8477, Japan.
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Evaluation of Cyprinid Herpesvirus 2 Latency and Reactivation in Carassius gibel. Microorganisms 2020; 8:microorganisms8030445. [PMID: 32245260 PMCID: PMC7143840 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms8030445] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2020] [Revised: 03/08/2020] [Accepted: 03/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Cyprinid herpesvirus 2 (CyHV-2, species Cyprinid herpesvirus 2) causes severe mortality in ornamental goldfish, crucian carp (Carassius auratus), and gibel carp (Carassius gibelio). It has been shown that the genomic DNA of CyHV-2 could be detected in subclinical fish, which implied that CyHV-2 could establish persistent infection. In this study, the latency of CyHV-2 was investigated in the survival fish after primary infection. CyHV-2 genomic DNA was detected in multiple tissues of acute infection samples; however, detection of CyHV-2 DNA was significantly reduced in fish recovered from the primary infection on day 300 postinfection. No active viral gene transcription, such as DNA polymerase and ORF99, was detected in recovered fish. Following temperature stress, an increase of CyHV-2 DNA copy numbers and gene transcription were observed in tissues examined, which suggests that CyHV-2 was reactivated under stress. In addition, a cell line (GCBLat1) derived from the brain tissue from CyHV-2-exposed fish harbored CyHV-2 genome but did not produce infectious virions under normal culture conditions. However, CyHV-2 replication and viral gene transcription occurred when GCBLat1 cells were treated with trichostatin A (TSA) or phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (TPA). It suggests CyHV-2 can remain latent in vitro and can reactivate under stress condition.
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Detection of koi herpesvirus in healthy common carps, Cyprinus carpio L. Virusdisease 2018; 29:445-452. [PMID: 30539046 DOI: 10.1007/s13337-018-0488-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2018] [Accepted: 09/14/2018] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Koi herpesvirus (KHV), a member of Hervesviridae, has been frequently reported to cause mass mortality (80-100%) in common carps (Cyprinus carpio L.). A unique feature of Herverviridae members is latent infection, maintaining their genetic information for an extended period in the absence of productive infection, and reactivate when environmental conditions are favorable for their growth. To prevent this occurs, a monitoring program should be done for early detection. This study aimed at detecting the presence of KHV in healthy common carps reared in West-Nusa Tenggara Province, Indonesia. A total of 80 healthy fish was collected randomly from eight fish farms (Lingsar, Batu Kumbung, Narmada, Tanjung, Lenek, Aik Mel, Brang Rea and Rhee) across West-Nusa Tenggara Province, Indonesia. The presence of KHV genome was detected using a PCR with a commercial kit, IQ 2000TM. The result showed that common carps collected from four farms (Aik Mel, Lenek, Rhee and Brang Rea) were positive KHV. The size of an amplified gene was ~ 550 bp which was the same as positive KHV control. The obtained result suggests that KHV as other member of Hervesviridae shows a latent infection in common carps, and should be anticipated for their reactivation. Based on this result it is highly recommended that common carps cultured in this region should be vaccinated. In addition, transporting common carp out from Lombok and Sumbawa Islands should be carefully regulated to prevent the spread of the disease to other areas.
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McColl KA, Sunarto A, Neave MJ. Biocontrol of Carp: More Than Just a Herpesvirus. Front Microbiol 2018; 9:2288. [PMID: 30319586 PMCID: PMC6168658 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.02288] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2018] [Accepted: 09/07/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Kenneth A McColl
- CSIRO-Australian Animal Health Laboratory, Geelong, VIC, Australia
| | - Agus Sunarto
- CSIRO-Australian Animal Health Laboratory, Geelong, VIC, Australia
| | - Matthew J Neave
- CSIRO-Australian Animal Health Laboratory, Geelong, VIC, Australia
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