Hepatitis C virus-core protein facilitates the degradation of Ku70 and reduces DNA-PK activity in hepatocytes

Viral interactions with non-homologous end-joining: a game of hide-and-seek

There are extensive interactions between viruses and the host DNA damage response (DDR) machinery. The outcome of these interactions includes not only direct effects on viral nucleic acids and genome replication, but also the activation of host stress response signalling pathways that can have further, indirect effects on viral life cycles. The non-homologous end-joining (NHEJ) pathway is responsible for the rapid and imprecise repair of DNA double-stranded breaks in the nucleus that would otherwise be highly toxic. Whilst directly repairing DNA, components of the NHEJ machinery, in particular the DNA-dependent protein kinase (DNA-PK), can activate a raft of downstream signalling events that activate antiviral, cell cycle checkpoint and apoptosis pathways. This combination of possible outcomes results in NHEJ being pro- or antiviral depending on the infection. In this review we will describe the broad range of interactions between NHEJ components and viruses and their consequences for both host and pathogen.

Differential Proteomics Reveals Discrete Functions of Proteins Interacting with Hypo- versus Hyper-phosphorylated NS5A of the Hepatitis C Virus

Protein phosphorylation is a reversible post-translational modification that regulates many biological processes in almost all living forms. In the case of the hepatitis C virus (HCV), the nonstructural protein 5A (NS5A) is believed to transit between hypo- and hyper-phosphorylated forms that interact with host proteins to execute different functions; however, little was known about the proteins that bind either form of NS5A. Here, we generated two high-quality antibodies specific to serine 235 nonphosphorylated hypo- vs serine 235 phosphorylated (pS235) hyper-phosphorylated form of NS5A and for the first time segregated these two forms of NS5A plus their interacting proteins for dimethyl-labeling based proteomics. We identified 629 proteins, of which 238 were quantified in three replicates. Bioinformatics showed 46 proteins that preferentially bind hypo-phosphorylated NS5A are involved in antiviral response and another 46 proteins that bind pS235 hyper-phosphorylated NS5A are involved in liver cancer progression. We further identified a DNA-dependent kinase (DNA-PK) that binds hypo-phosphorylated NS5A. Inhibition of DNA-PK with an inhibitor or via gene-specific knockdown significantly reduced S232 phosphorylation and NS5A hyper-phosphorylation. Because S232 phosphorylation initiates sequential S232/S235/S238 phosphorylation leading to NS5A hyper-phosphorylation, we identified a new protein kinase that regulates a delicate balance of NS5A between hypo- and hyper-phosphorylation states, respectively, involved in host antiviral responses and liver cancer progression.

The interaction of adenovirus E1A with the mammalian protein Ku70/XRCC6

Human adenovirus infects terminally differentiated cells and to replicate it must induce S-phase. The chief architects that drive adenovirus-infected cells into S-phase are the E1A proteins, with 5 different isoforms expressed during infection. E1A remodels the infected cell by associating with cellular factors and modulating their activity. The C-terminus of E1A is known to bind to only a handful of proteins. We have identified a novel E1A C-terminus binding protein, Ku70 (XRCC6), which was found to bind directly within the CR4 of E1A from human adenovirus type 5. Depletion of Ku70 reduced virus growth, possibly by activating the DNA damage response pathway. Ku70 was found to localize to viral replication centers and associate with the viral genome. Ku70 was also recruited to cellular cell cycle regulated promoters following viral infection. Our study has identified, for the first time, Ku70 as a novel E1A-binding protein which affects virus life cycle.

Ku80 functions as a tumor suppressor in hepatocellular carcinoma by inducing S-phase arrest through a p53-dependent pathway

Ku80 is a component of the protein complex called DNA-dependent protein kinase, which is involved in DNA double-strand break repair and multiple other functions. Previous studies revealed that Ku80 haplo-insufficient and poly (adenosine diphosphate-ribose) polymerase-null transgenic mice developed hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) at a high frequency. The role of Ku80 has never been investigated in human HCC. Ku80 expressions in HCC and adjacent liver tissue were investigated by using immunohistochemical staining and western blot. Ku80 was transfected into a Ku80-deficient HCC cell line SMMC7721 cells, and the growth features of the Ku80-expressing cells and vector-transfected cells were studied both in vitro and in vivo. Cell cycle analysis and RNA interference were employed to investigate the mechanisms underlying the growth regulation associated with Ku80 expression. Ku80 was found frequently downregulated in HCC compared with adjacent liver tissue. Ku80 downregulation was significantly correlated with elevated hepatitis B virus-DNA load and severity of liver cirrhosis. Overexpression of Ku80 in SMMC7721 cells significantly suppressed cell proliferation in vitro and in vivo. Ku80 overexpression caused S-phase cell cycle arrest and was associated with upregulation of p53 and p21(CIP1/WAF1), and the inhibition of p53 or p21(CIP1/WAF1) expression by RNA interference overcame the growth suppression and S-phase arrest in the Ku80-expressing cells. A novel mechanism was revealed that Ku80 functions as a tumor suppressor in HCC by inducing S-phase arrest through a p53-dependent pathway.