1
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Patarca R, Haseltine WA. Potential Transcriptional Enhancers in Coronaviruses: From Infectious Bronchitis Virus to SARS-CoV-2. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:8012. [PMID: 39125583 PMCID: PMC11311688 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25158012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2024] [Revised: 07/13/2024] [Accepted: 07/20/2024] [Indexed: 08/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Coronaviruses constitute a global threat to human and animal health. It is essential to investigate the long-distance RNA-RNA interactions that approximate remote regulatory elements in strategies, including genome circularization, discontinuous transcription, and transcriptional enhancers, aimed at the rapid replication of their large genomes, pathogenicity, and immune evasion. Based on the primary sequences and modeled RNA-RNA interactions of two experimentally defined coronaviral enhancers, we detected via an in silico primary and secondary structural analysis potential enhancers in various coronaviruses, from the phylogenetically ancient avian infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) to the recently emerged SARS-CoV-2. These potential enhancers possess a core duplex-forming region that could transition between closed and open states, as molecular switches directed by viral or host factors. The duplex open state would pair with remote sequences in the viral genome and modulate the expression of downstream crucial genes involved in viral replication and host immune evasion. Consistently, variations in the predicted IBV enhancer region or its distant targets coincide with cases of viral attenuation, possibly driven by decreased open reading frame (ORF)3a immune evasion protein expression. If validated experimentally, the annotated enhancer sequences could inform structural prediction tools and antiviral interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberto Patarca
- ACCESS Health International, 384 West Lane, Ridgefield, CT 06877, USA;
- Feinstein Institutes for Medical Research, 350 Community Dr, Manhasset, NY 11030, USA
| | - William A. Haseltine
- ACCESS Health International, 384 West Lane, Ridgefield, CT 06877, USA;
- Feinstein Institutes for Medical Research, 350 Community Dr, Manhasset, NY 11030, USA
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2
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Rajkhowa TK, Zodinpuii D, Jayappa K, Hauhnar L. Molecular characterization of a novel variant of infectious bronchitis virus from field outbreaks in backyard chicken population of North East India. Virus Genes 2024; 60:44-52. [PMID: 38185717 DOI: 10.1007/s11262-023-02045-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2023] [Accepted: 12/02/2023] [Indexed: 01/09/2024]
Abstract
Infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) causes considerable economic impacts on global poultry production. Since its emergence in early 1930, IBV continues to evolve and now exists in a wide range of antigenically and genetically distinct variants, that makes the prevention and the control of the disease both complex and challenging. Although IBV has been reported regularly from different corner of India, information about the molecular epidemiology of circulating strain in relation to clinical form of the disease is not available. We have studied the clinico-pathology and confirmed eight distinct field outbreaks of the disease from poultry population of Mizoram, India. The clinical disease in affected birds resulted sever pathological lesions involving respiratory, gastrointestinal, and urinary system together. The complete S1 nucleotide sequences and protein analyses have revealed a distinct variant of genotype I-IBV (GI), designated as GI-24 circulating in India. The S1 protein of the field strains displayed unique additional eighteen amino acids at C terminal end when compared with M41strain. Comparison of the S1 protein among all the 27 lineages of GI revealed five mutations that are exclusive to only the Indian strains. All the field strains have also possessed the amino acid mutations at highly variable region 2 (HVR2) of S1 receptor-binding domain (RBD) that are considered characteristic of nephropathogenic strains. The circulating GI-24 strains displayed potency for a wide range of tropism from respiratory epithelium to GIT and urinary system. This study provides insight on recently emerging IBV outbreaks in NER, India, which might be causing huge economic losses to the poultry farmers in the region.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tridib Kumar Rajkhowa
- Department of Veterinary Pathology, College of Veterinary Sciences & Animal Husbandry, Central Agricultural University (I), Selesih, Aizawl, Mizoram, 796014, India.
| | - Doris Zodinpuii
- Department of Veterinary Pathology, College of Veterinary Sciences & Animal Husbandry, Central Agricultural University (I), Selesih, Aizawl, Mizoram, 796014, India
| | - Kiran Jayappa
- Department of Veterinary Pathology, College of Veterinary Sciences & Animal Husbandry, Central Agricultural University (I), Selesih, Aizawl, Mizoram, 796014, India
| | - Lalthapuii Hauhnar
- Department of Veterinary Pathology, College of Veterinary Sciences & Animal Husbandry, Central Agricultural University (I), Selesih, Aizawl, Mizoram, 796014, India
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3
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Zhang P, Yang T, Sun Y, Qiao H, Hu N, Li X, Wang W, Zhang L, Cong Y. Development and Immunoprotection of Bacterium-like Particle Vaccine against Infectious Bronchitis in Chickens. Vaccines (Basel) 2023; 11:1292. [PMID: 37631859 PMCID: PMC10457988 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines11081292] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2023] [Revised: 07/18/2023] [Accepted: 07/26/2023] [Indexed: 08/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Infectious bronchitis (IB) is a major threat to the global poultry industry. Despite the availability of commercial vaccines, the IB epidemic has not been effectively controlled. The exploration of novel IBV vaccines may provide a new way to prevent and control IB. In this study, BLP-S1, a bacterium-like particle displaying the S1 subunit of infectious bronchitis virus (IBV), was constructed using the GEM-PA surface display system. The immunoprotective efficacy results showed that BLP-S1 can effectively induce specific IgG and sIgA immune responses, providing a protection rate of 90% against IBV infection in 14-day-old commercial chickens. These results suggest that BLP-S1 has potential for the development of novel vaccines with good immunogenicity and immunoprotection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pengju Zhang
- Institute of Animal Biotechnology, Jilin Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Changchun 130033, China; (P.Z.)
| | - Tiantian Yang
- Laboratory of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education, Jilin University, Changchun 130062, China
| | - Yixue Sun
- Department of Policies and Regulations, Changchun University, Changchun 130022, China
| | - Haiying Qiao
- Institute of Animal Biotechnology, Jilin Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Changchun 130033, China; (P.Z.)
| | - Nianzhi Hu
- Institute of Animal Biotechnology, Jilin Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Changchun 130033, China; (P.Z.)
| | - Xintao Li
- Institute of Animal Biotechnology, Jilin Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Changchun 130033, China; (P.Z.)
| | - Weixia Wang
- Institute of Animal Biotechnology, Jilin Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Changchun 130033, China; (P.Z.)
| | - Lichun Zhang
- Institute of Animal Biotechnology, Jilin Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Changchun 130033, China; (P.Z.)
| | - Yanlong Cong
- Laboratory of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education, Jilin University, Changchun 130062, China
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4
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Yan W, Yang Q, Huang S, Liu S, Wang K, Tang Y, Lei C, Wang H, Yang X. Insights on genetic characterization and pathogenesis of a GI-19 (QX-like) infectious bronchitis virus isolated in China. Poult Sci 2023; 102:102719. [PMID: 37156078 DOI: 10.1016/j.psj.2023.102719] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2023] [Revised: 03/29/2023] [Accepted: 04/09/2023] [Indexed: 05/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) causes respiratory diseases in chickens, incurring great losses to the poultry industry worldwide. In this study, we isolated an IBV strain, designated as AH-2020, from the chickens vaccinated with H120 and 4/91 in Anhui, China. The sequence homology analysis based on the S1 gene revealed that AH-2020 shares low similarities with the 3 vaccine strains, namely, H120, LDT3-A, and 4/91 (78.19, 80.84, and 81.6%, respectively). Phylogenetic analysis based on the S1 gene revealed that AH-2020 clustered with the GI-19 type. Furthermore, protein modeling revealed that the mutations in the amino acids in AH-2020 were mainly located in the N-terminal domain of S1 (S1-NTD), and the pattern of deletion and insertion mutations in the S1 protein may have influenced the structural changes on the surface of S1. Further, approximately 7-day-old SPF chickens were inoculated with AH-2020 at 106.0 EID50. These chickens exhibited clinical signs of the infection such as listlessness, huddling, and head-shaking, accompanied by depression and 40% mortality. Serum antibody test demonstrated that in response to the AH-2020 infection, the antibody level increased the fastest at 7 dpi, with virus shedding rate of cloaca being 100% at 14 dpi. The viral titer in various tissues was detected using hematoxylin and eosin staining and immunohistochemistry, which revealed that AH-2020 infection can damage the kidney, trachea, lung, cecal tonsil, and bursa of Fabricius. Our study provided evidence that the GI-19-type IBV is undergoing more complex mutations, and effective measures are urgently needed to prevent the spread of these variant strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenjun Yan
- Key Laboratory of Bio-Resources and Eco-Environment, Ministry of Education, Animal Disease Prevention and Food Safety Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, College of Life Science, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610064, China
| | - Qingcheng Yang
- Key Laboratory of Bio-Resources and Eco-Environment, Ministry of Education, Animal Disease Prevention and Food Safety Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, College of Life Science, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610064, China
| | - Siyu Huang
- Key Laboratory of Bio-Resources and Eco-Environment, Ministry of Education, Animal Disease Prevention and Food Safety Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, College of Life Science, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610064, China
| | - Song Liu
- Key Laboratory of Bio-Resources and Eco-Environment, Ministry of Education, Animal Disease Prevention and Food Safety Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, College of Life Science, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610064, China
| | - Kailu Wang
- Key Laboratory of Bio-Resources and Eco-Environment, Ministry of Education, Animal Disease Prevention and Food Safety Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, College of Life Science, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610064, China
| | - Yizhi Tang
- Key Laboratory of Bio-Resources and Eco-Environment, Ministry of Education, Animal Disease Prevention and Food Safety Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, College of Life Science, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610064, China
| | - Cangwei Lei
- Key Laboratory of Bio-Resources and Eco-Environment, Ministry of Education, Animal Disease Prevention and Food Safety Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, College of Life Science, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610064, China
| | - Hongning Wang
- Key Laboratory of Bio-Resources and Eco-Environment, Ministry of Education, Animal Disease Prevention and Food Safety Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, College of Life Science, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610064, China
| | - Xin Yang
- Key Laboratory of Bio-Resources and Eco-Environment, Ministry of Education, Animal Disease Prevention and Food Safety Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, College of Life Science, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610064, China.
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5
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Fan W, Chen J, Zhang Y, Deng Q, Wei L, Zhao C, Lv D, Lin L, Zhang B, Wei T, Huang T, Wei P, Mo M. Phylogenetic and Spatiotemporal Analyses of the Complete Genome Sequences of Avian Coronavirus Infectious Bronchitis Virus in China During 1985-2020: Revealing Coexistence of Multiple Transmission Chains and the Origin of LX4-Type Virus. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:693196. [PMID: 35444624 PMCID: PMC9013971 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.693196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2021] [Accepted: 02/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Infectious bronchitis (IB) virus (IBV) causes considerable economic losses to poultry production. The data on transmission dynamics of IBV in China are limited. The complete genome sequences of 212 IBV isolates in China during 1985–2020 were analyzed as well as the characteristics of the phylogenetic tree, recombination events, dN/dS ratios, temporal dynamics, and phylogeographic relationships. The LX4 type (GI-19) was found to have the highest dN/dS ratios and has been the most dominant genotype since 1999, and the Taiwan-I type (GI-7) and New type (GVI-1) showed an increasing trend. A total of 59 recombinants were identified, multiple recombination events between the field and vaccine strains were found in 24 isolates, and the 4/91-type (GI-13) isolates were found to be more prone to being involved in the recombination. Bayesian phylogeographic analyses indicated that the Chinese IBVs originated from Liaoning province in the early 1900s. The LX4-type viruses were traced back to Liaoning province in the late 1950s and had multiple transmission routes in China and two major transmission routes in the world. Viral phylogeography identified three spread regions for IBVs (including LX4 type) in China: Northeastern China (Heilongjiang, Liaoning, and Jilin), north and central China (Beijing, Hebei, Shanxi, Shandong, and Jiangsu), and Southern China (Guangxi and Guangdong). Shandong has been the epidemiological center of IBVs (including LX4 type) in China. Overall, our study highlighted the reasons why the LX4-type viruses had become the dominant genotype and its origin and transmission routes, providing more targeted strategies for the prevention and control of IB in China.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wensheng Fan
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Guangxi University, Nanning, China
| | - Jiming Chen
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Guangxi University, Nanning, China
| | - Yu Zhang
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Guangxi University, Nanning, China
| | - Qiaomu Deng
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Guangxi University, Nanning, China
| | - Lanping Wei
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Guangxi University, Nanning, China
| | - Changrun Zhao
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Guangxi University, Nanning, China
| | - Di Lv
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Guangxi University, Nanning, China
| | - Liting Lin
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Guangxi University, Nanning, China
| | - Bingsha Zhang
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Guangxi University, Nanning, China
| | - Tianchao Wei
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Guangxi University, Nanning, China
| | - Teng Huang
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Guangxi University, Nanning, China
| | - Ping Wei
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Guangxi University, Nanning, China
| | - Meilan Mo
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Guangxi University, Nanning, China
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6
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Gong H, Ni R, Qiu R, Wang F, Yan W, Wang K, Li H, Fu X, Chen L, Lei C, Wang HN, Yang X. Evaluation of a novel recombinant strain of infectious bronchitis virus emerged from three attenuated live vaccine strains. Microb Pathog 2022; 164:105437. [DOI: 10.1016/j.micpath.2022.105437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2021] [Revised: 01/11/2022] [Accepted: 02/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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7
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Ghetas AM. Infectious Bronchitis Virus Genotypes in the Middle East. Avian Dis 2021; 65:647-651. [DOI: 10.1637/aviandiseases-21-00097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2021] [Accepted: 09/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- A. M. Ghetas
- Poultry Diseases Department, Veterinary Research Institute, National Research Centre, P.O. 12622, Giza, Egypt
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8
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Zhang X, Guo M, Zhao J, Wu Y. Avian Infectious Bronchitis in China: Epidemiology, Vaccination, and Control. Avian Dis 2021; 65:652-656. [DOI: 10.1637/aviandiseases-21-00098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2021] [Accepted: 09/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Xiaorong Zhang
- Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, China
| | - Mengjiao Guo
- Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, China
| | - Jia Zhao
- Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, China
| | - Yantao Wu
- Jiangsu Co-innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, China
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9
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Identification of Novel T-Cell Epitopes on Infectious Bronchitis Virus N Protein and Development of a Multi-epitope Vaccine. J Virol 2021; 95:e0066721. [PMID: 34105997 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00667-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Cellular immune responses play a key role in the control of viral infection. The nucleocapsid (N) protein of infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) is a major immunogenic protein that can induce protective immunity. To screen for potential T-cell epitopes on IBV N protein, 40 overlapping peptides covering the entirety of the N protein were designed and synthesized. Four T-cell epitope peptides were identified by gamma interferon (IFN-γ) enzyme-linked immunosorbent spot (ELISpot), intracellular cytokine staining, and carboxyfluorescein succinimidyl ester (CFSE) lymphocyte proliferation assays; among them, three peptides (N211-230, N271-290, and N381-400) were cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) epitopes, and one peptide (N261-280) was a dual-specific T-cell epitope, which can be recognized by both CD8+ and CD4+ T cells. Multi-epitope gene transcription cassettes comprising four neutralizing epitope domains and four T-cell epitope peptides were synthesized and inserted into the genome of Newcastle disease virus strain La Sota between the P and M genes. Recombinant IBV multi-epitope vaccine candidate rLa Sota/SBNT was generated via reverse genetics, and its immune protection efficacy was evaluated in specific-pathogen-free chickens. Our results show that rLa Sota/SBNT induced IBV-specific neutralizing antibody and T-cell responses and provided significant protection against homologous and heterologous IBV challenge. Thus, the T-cell epitope peptides identified in this study could be good candidates for IBV vaccine development, and recombinant Newcastle disease virus-expressing IBV multi-epitope genes represent a safe and effective vaccine candidate for controlling infectious bronchitis. IMPORTANCE T-cell-mediated immune responses are critical for the elimination of IBV-infected cells. To screen conserved T-cell epitopes in the IBV N protein, 40 overlapping peptides covering the entirety of the N protein were designed and synthesized. By combining IFN-γ ELISpot, intracellular cytokine staining, and CFSE lymphocyte proliferation assays, we identified three CTL epitopes and one dual-specific T-cell epitope. The value of T-cell epitope peptides identified in the N protein was further verified by the design of an IBV multi-epitope vaccine. Results show that IBV multi-epitope vaccine candidate rLa Sota/SBNT provided cross protection against challenges with a QX-like or a TW-like IBV strain. So, T-cell-mediated immune responses play an important role in the control of viral infection, and conserved T-cell epitopes serve as promising candidates for use in multi-epitope vaccine construction. Our results provide a new perspective for the development of a safer and more effective IBV vaccine.
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10
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Yan W, Qiu R, Wang F, Fu X, Li H, Cui P, Zhai Y, Li C, Zhang L, Gu K, Zuo L, Lei C, Wang H, Yang X. Genetic and pathogenic characterization of a novel recombinant avian infectious bronchitis virus derived from GI-1, GI-13, GI-28, and GI-19 strains in Southwestern China. Poult Sci 2021; 100:101210. [PMID: 34116353 PMCID: PMC8192866 DOI: 10.1016/j.psj.2021.101210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2021] [Revised: 04/08/2021] [Accepted: 04/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Avian infectious bronchitis (IB), caused by avian infectious bronchitis virus (IBV), is an acute and highly contagious disease that is extremely harmful to the poultry industry throughout the world. The cross-using of different attenuated live vaccine strains has led to the occurrence of diverse IBV serotypes. In this study, we isolated an IBV strain from a chicken farm in southwest China and designated it CK/CH/SCMY/160315. Construction of a phylogenetic tree based on full S1 gene sequence analysis suggested that CK/CH/SCMY/160315 bears similarity to GI-28, and further comparison of S1 amino acid residues revealed that CK/CH/SCMY/160315 showed mutations and deletions in many key positions between LDT3-A and other GI-28 reference strains. Importantly, CK/CH/SCMY/160315 was identified as a novel recombinant virus derived from live attenuated vaccine strains H120 (GI-1), 4/91 (GI-13), LDT3-A (GI-28), and the field strain LJL/08-1 (GI-19), identifying at least 5 recombination sites in both structural and accessory genes. Pathogenicity analysis indicated that CK/CH/SCMY/160315 caused listlessness, sneezing, huddling, head shaking, and increased antibody levels in the inoculated chickens. To further describe pathogenicity of this novel strain, we assessed viral load in different tissues and conducted hematoxylin and eosin (HE) staining of the trachea, lungs and kidneys. Our results provide evidence for the continuing evolution of IBV field strains via genetic recombination and mutation, leading to outbreaks in the vaccinated chicken populations in China.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenjun Yan
- Animal Disease Prevention and Food Safety Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province; Key Laboratory of Bio-Resources and Eco-Environment, Ministry of Education, College of Life Science Sichuan University, Chengdu 610064, China
| | - Rongbin Qiu
- College of Life Science and Engineering, Southwest University of Science and Technology, Mianyang 621010, China
| | - Fuyan Wang
- Sichuan Sundaily Farm Ecological Food Co., Ltd., Mianyang 621010, China
| | - Xue Fu
- Animal Disease Prevention and Food Safety Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province; Key Laboratory of Bio-Resources and Eco-Environment, Ministry of Education, College of Life Science Sichuan University, Chengdu 610064, China
| | - Hao Li
- Animal Disease Prevention and Food Safety Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province; Key Laboratory of Bio-Resources and Eco-Environment, Ministry of Education, College of Life Science Sichuan University, Chengdu 610064, China
| | - Pengfei Cui
- Animal Disease Prevention and Food Safety Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province; Key Laboratory of Bio-Resources and Eco-Environment, Ministry of Education, College of Life Science Sichuan University, Chengdu 610064, China
| | - Yaru Zhai
- Animal Disease Prevention and Food Safety Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province; Key Laboratory of Bio-Resources and Eco-Environment, Ministry of Education, College of Life Science Sichuan University, Chengdu 610064, China
| | - Chun Li
- Sichuan Animal Disease Control Center, Chengdu, 610041, China
| | - Lan Zhang
- Animal Disease Prevention and Food Safety Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province; Key Laboratory of Bio-Resources and Eco-Environment, Ministry of Education, College of Life Science Sichuan University, Chengdu 610064, China
| | - Kui Gu
- Animal Disease Prevention and Food Safety Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province; Key Laboratory of Bio-Resources and Eco-Environment, Ministry of Education, College of Life Science Sichuan University, Chengdu 610064, China
| | - Lei Zuo
- Animal Disease Prevention and Food Safety Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province; Key Laboratory of Bio-Resources and Eco-Environment, Ministry of Education, College of Life Science Sichuan University, Chengdu 610064, China
| | - Changwei Lei
- Animal Disease Prevention and Food Safety Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province; Key Laboratory of Bio-Resources and Eco-Environment, Ministry of Education, College of Life Science Sichuan University, Chengdu 610064, China
| | - Hongning Wang
- Animal Disease Prevention and Food Safety Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province; Key Laboratory of Bio-Resources and Eco-Environment, Ministry of Education, College of Life Science Sichuan University, Chengdu 610064, China
| | - Xin Yang
- Animal Disease Prevention and Food Safety Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province; Key Laboratory of Bio-Resources and Eco-Environment, Ministry of Education, College of Life Science Sichuan University, Chengdu 610064, China.
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11
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Mase M, Gotou M, Inoue D, Watanabe S, Iseki H. Genotyping of infectious bronchitis viruses isolated in Japan during 2008-2019. J Vet Med Sci 2021; 83:522-526. [PMID: 33431758 PMCID: PMC8025416 DOI: 10.1292/jvms.20-0620] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Seventeen isolates of infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) were obtained from various prefectures of Japan during 2008-2019 and genetically analyzed. The IBV isolates were classified into six genetic groups, based on phylogenetic analysis of the S1 gene. The S1 genotypes were distinguishable by a newly developed restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) method using three endonucleases, Hae II, Hpa I, and Fok I. Moreover, the isolates were classified into four genetic groups, based on phylogenetic analysis of the S2 gene. However, novel genetic groups based on a combination of S1 and S2 genotypes, which were undetected previously, were confirmed in this study, indicating that various recombinant IBV strains were prevalent in poultry in Japan.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masaji Mase
- Division of Viral Disease and Epidemiology, National Institute of Animal Health, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization, 3-1-5 Kannondai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-0856, Japan.,United Graduate School of Veterinary Sciences, Gifu University, 1-1 Yanagido, Gifu, Gifu 501-1193, Japan
| | - Makiko Gotou
- Tokushima Animal Hygiene Service Center of Tokushima Prefecture, 5-94 Minamisyoumachi, Tokushima 770-0045, Japan
| | - Daisuke Inoue
- Chuo Livestock Hygiene Service Center, Nagasaki Prefecture, 3118 Kaizu, Isahaya, Nagasaki 854-0063, Japan
| | - Satoko Watanabe
- Division of Viral Disease and Epidemiology, National Institute of Animal Health, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization, 3-1-5 Kannondai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-0856, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Iseki
- Division of Viral Disease and Epidemiology, National Institute of Animal Health, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization, 3-1-5 Kannondai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-0856, Japan
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12
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Houta MH, Hassan KE, El-Sawah AA, Elkady MF, Kilany WH, Ali A, Abdel-Moneim AS. The emergence, evolution and spread of infectious bronchitis virus genotype GI-23. Arch Virol 2021; 166:9-26. [PMID: 33416996 PMCID: PMC7791962 DOI: 10.1007/s00705-020-04920-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2020] [Accepted: 11/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
Avian infectious bronchitis is a contagious viral disease, caused by avian infectious bronchitis virus (IBV), that leads to severe losses in the poultry industry all over the world. Since the 1950s, IBV has circulated in the Middle East and North Africa, and no tangible evidence has shown any effects of measures taken to control its spread or evolution. Furthermore, new IBV variants are continually discovered. Although several genetic studies on IBV have been conducted, many IBV strains from this region have either been misclassified or remain unclassified. The genotype 23 (GI-23) variant emerged and has prevailed in the Middle East by continuously evolving through inter- and/or intra-genotypic recombination. The GI-23 genotype is currently enzootic throughout Europe and Asia. Although many studies of protection against the circulating strains have been conducted, they have not been standardized according to regulatory requirements. In this review, we provide an overview of the evolution and genetic diversity of IBV genotypes and a genetic classification of IBV strains, with a focus on the GI-23 genotype. The high prevalence of IBV GI-23 strains necessitates the adoption of vaccination schemes using GI-23-based vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohamed H Houta
- Poultry Diseases Department, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Beni-Suef University, Beni-Suef, 62511, Egypt
| | - Kareem E Hassan
- Poultry Diseases Department, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Beni-Suef University, Beni-Suef, 62511, Egypt
| | - Azza A El-Sawah
- Poultry Diseases Department, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Beni-Suef University, Beni-Suef, 62511, Egypt
| | - Magdy F Elkady
- Poultry Diseases Department, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Beni-Suef University, Beni-Suef, 62511, Egypt
| | - Walid H Kilany
- Reference Laboratory for Veterinary Quality Control on Poultry Production (RLQP), Animal Health Research Institute, Dokki, P.O. Box 264, Giza, 12618, Egypt
| | - Ahmed Ali
- Poultry Diseases Department, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Beni-Suef University, Beni-Suef, 62511, Egypt.
| | - Ahmed S Abdel-Moneim
- Department of Virology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Beni-Suef University, Beni-Suef, 62511, Egypt. .,Department of Microbiology, College of Medicine, Taif University, Taif, 21944, Saudi Arabia.
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13
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Zhang X, Liao K, Chen S, Yan K, Du X, Zhang C, Guo M, Wu Y. Evaluation of the reproductive system development and egg-laying performance of hens infected with TW I-type infectious bronchitis virus. Vet Res 2020; 51:95. [PMID: 32736651 PMCID: PMC7393890 DOI: 10.1186/s13567-020-00819-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2020] [Accepted: 07/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The prevalence of TW I-type infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) has been increasing rapidly, and it has become the second most common genotype of IBV in China threatening the poultry industry. In this study, 1-day-old specific-pathogen-free (SPF) chickens infected with TW I-type IBV were continuously observed for 200 days. TW I-type IBV affected the respiratory, urinary, and female reproductive systems, resulting in a mortality rate of 10% as well as a decrease in egg quantity and an increase in inferior eggs. During the monitoring period, serious lesions occurred in the female reproductive system, such as yolk peritonitis, a shortened oviduct, and cysts of different sizes with effusion in the degenerated right oviduct. The infective viruses persisted in vivo for a long time, and due to the stress of laying, virus shedding was detected again after the onset of egg production. Our findings suggest that TW I-type IBV is deadly to chickens and could cause permanent damage to the oviduct, resulting in the poor laying performance of female survivors and decreasing the breeding value and welfare of the infected flock.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaorong Zhang
- Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center for the Prevention and Control of Animal Infectious Disease and Zoonoses, College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, 225009, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China
| | - Kai Liao
- Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center for the Prevention and Control of Animal Infectious Disease and Zoonoses, College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, 225009, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China
| | - Shuqin Chen
- Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center for the Prevention and Control of Animal Infectious Disease and Zoonoses, College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, 225009, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China
| | - Kun Yan
- Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center for the Prevention and Control of Animal Infectious Disease and Zoonoses, College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, 225009, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China
| | - Xubin Du
- Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center for the Prevention and Control of Animal Infectious Disease and Zoonoses, College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, 225009, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China
| | - Chengcheng Zhang
- Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center for the Prevention and Control of Animal Infectious Disease and Zoonoses, College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, 225009, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China
| | - Mengjiao Guo
- Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center for the Prevention and Control of Animal Infectious Disease and Zoonoses, College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, 225009, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China
| | - Yantao Wu
- Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center for the Prevention and Control of Animal Infectious Disease and Zoonoses, College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou, 225009, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China.
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14
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Rohaim MA, El Naggar RF, Abdelsabour MA, Mohamed MHA, El-Sabagh IM, Munir M. Evolutionary Analysis of Infectious Bronchitis Virus Reveals Marked Genetic Diversity and Recombination Events. Genes (Basel) 2020; 11:E605. [PMID: 32486006 PMCID: PMC7348897 DOI: 10.3390/genes11060605] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2020] [Revised: 05/24/2020] [Accepted: 05/27/2020] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
In the last 5 years, frequent outbreaks of infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) are observed in both broiler and layer chicken flocks in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) in spite of extensive usage of vaccines. The IBV is a widespread avian coronavirus affecting both vaccinated and unvaccinated chicken flocks and is attributed to significant economic losses, around the globe. In the present study, 58 (n = 58) samples were collected from four different commercial poultry flocks from 8 KSA districts during 2019. A total of nine positive isolates (9/58; 15.5%), based on real-time reverse transcriptase PCR targeting nucleocapsid (N) gene, were used for further genetic characterization and evolutionary analysis. Genetic characterization of the partial spike (S1) gene revealed the clustering of the reported isolates into three different genotypes, whereas four additional isolates were grouped within 4/91 genotype, two isolates within IS/885 genotype, one isolate was closely related to IS/1494/06, and two isolates were grouped within classic serotype (vaccine-like strains). Phylodynamic revealed clustering of four isolated viruses within GI-13 lineage, three isolates within GI-23 lineage, and two isolates within GI-1 lineage. Results indicate that there are high evolutionary distances between the newly identified IBV strains in this study and the commercially used vaccines (GI-1), suggesting that IBV strains circulating in the KSA are under constant evolutionary pressures. Selective pressure biostatistics analyses consistently demonstrate the presence of a higher positive score which highlights the role of natural selection, a mechanism of virus evolution on sites located on the protein surface, within or nearby domains involved in viral attachment or related functions. Recombination analysis revealed emergence of two isolates through recombination events resulting in new recombinant viruses. Taken together, these finding demonstrate the genetic and evolutionary insights into the currently circulating IBV genotypes in KSA, which could help to better understand the origin, spread, and evolution of infectious bronchitis viruses, and to ascertain the importance of disease monitoring as well as re-evaluation for the currently used vaccines and vaccination programs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammed A Rohaim
- Department of Virology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Cairo University, Giza 12211, Egypt
- Division of Biomedical and Life Sciences, Faculty of Health and Medicine, Lancaster University, Lancaster LA1 4YG, UK
| | - Rania F El Naggar
- Department of Virology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Sadat City, Sadat 32897, Egypt
| | - Mohammed A Abdelsabour
- Department of Poultry Viral Vaccines, Veterinary Serum and Vaccine Research Institute (VSVRI), Agriculture Research Centre (ARC), Cairo 11381, Egypt
| | - Mahmoud H A Mohamed
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, King Faisal University, P.O. Box: 400, Al-Ahsa 31982, Saudi Arabia
- Department of Avian and Rabbit Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Zagazig University, Zagazig 44511, Egypt
| | - Ibrahim M El-Sabagh
- Department of Virology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Cairo University, Giza 12211, Egypt
- Central Biotechnology Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, King Faisal University, P.O. Box 400, Al-Ahsa 31982, Saudi Arabia
| | - Muhammad Munir
- Division of Biomedical and Life Sciences, Faculty of Health and Medicine, Lancaster University, Lancaster LA1 4YG, UK
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15
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Ren G, Liu F, Huang M, Li L, Shang H, Liang M, Luo Q, Chen R. Pathogenicity of a QX-like avian infectious bronchitis virus isolated in China. Poult Sci 2020; 99:111-118. [PMID: 32416792 PMCID: PMC7111634 DOI: 10.3382/ps/pez568] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2019] [Accepted: 09/16/2019] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Avian infectious bronchitis is a serious and highly contagious disease caused by infectious bronchitis virus (IBV). We isolated a highly virulent IBV strain (CK/CH/JS/TAHY) from kidneys of diseased chickens. Phylogenetic analysis based on the S1 gene revealed that CK/CH/JS/TAHY clustered with the QX-like type. The S1 gene has 1,620 nucleotides and encoded a polypeptide of 540 amino acids with typical coronavirus cleavage recognition sites of HRRR. About 1-day-old specific pathogen-free White Leghorn chickens inoculated with CK/CH/JS/TAHY at 105.5 EID50 exhibited clinical signs including coughing, sneezing, nasal discharge, and tracheal vocalization accompanied by depression with 84% mortality and 100% morbidity. The kidneys of dead birds were swollen and pale and exhibited severe urate deposition. Histopathological examination revealed kidney hemorrhages, multifocal necrosis of the renal tubules and trachea with cilia loss, sloughing of epithelial cells, and edema of the lamina propria. IBV-specific antibodies appeared at 10 D post-infection. Chickens vaccinated with a CK/CH/JS/TAHY oil-emulsion vaccine showed 26.7% morbidity and 3% mortality indicating a protective effect. In conclusion, the IBV strain is a virulent avian IBV and that exhibited severe pathogenicity in chickens and is a vaccine candidate to prevent infection by Chinese QX-like nephropathogenic IBV strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guangcai Ren
- Key Laboratory of Biotechnology and Drug Manufacture for Animal Epidemic Prevention, Ministry of Agriculture, Zhaoqing 526238, China; Zhaoqing Institute of Biotechnology Co., Ltd, Zhaoqing 526238, China
| | - Fan Liu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agriculture University, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Miaorong Huang
- Key Laboratory of Biotechnology and Drug Manufacture for Animal Epidemic Prevention, Ministry of Agriculture, Zhaoqing 526238, China; Zhaoqing Institute of Biotechnology Co., Ltd, Zhaoqing 526238, China
| | - Lin Li
- Key Laboratory of Biotechnology and Drug Manufacture for Animal Epidemic Prevention, Ministry of Agriculture, Zhaoqing 526238, China
| | - Huiqin Shang
- Key Laboratory of Biotechnology and Drug Manufacture for Animal Epidemic Prevention, Ministry of Agriculture, Zhaoqing 526238, China
| | - Meilan Liang
- Key Laboratory of Biotechnology and Drug Manufacture for Animal Epidemic Prevention, Ministry of Agriculture, Zhaoqing 526238, China
| | - Qiong Luo
- Key Laboratory of Biotechnology and Drug Manufacture for Animal Epidemic Prevention, Ministry of Agriculture, Zhaoqing 526238, China; Zhaoqing Institute of Biotechnology Co., Ltd, Zhaoqing 526238, China
| | - Ruiai Chen
- Key Laboratory of Biotechnology and Drug Manufacture for Animal Epidemic Prevention, Ministry of Agriculture, Zhaoqing 526238, China; Zhaoqing Institute of Biotechnology Co., Ltd, Zhaoqing 526238, China; College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agriculture University, Guangzhou 510642, China.
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16
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Fan W, Tang N, Dong Z, Chen J, Zhang W, Zhao C, He Y, Li M, Wu C, Wei T, Huang T, Mo M, Wei P. Genetic Analysis of Avian Coronavirus Infectious Bronchitis Virus in Yellow Chickens in Southern China over the Past Decade: Revealing the Changes of Genetic Diversity, Dominant Genotypes, and Selection Pressure. Viruses 2019; 11:v11100898. [PMID: 31561498 PMCID: PMC6833030 DOI: 10.3390/v11100898] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2019] [Revised: 09/23/2019] [Accepted: 09/24/2019] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
The high mutation rates of infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) pose economic threats to the poultry industry. In order to track the genetic evolutionary of IBV isolates circulating in yellow chickens, we continued to conduct the genetic analyses of the structural genes S1, E, M, and N from 64 IBV isolates in southern China during 2009–2017. The results showed that the dominant genotypes based on the four genes had changed when compared with those during 1985–2008. Based on the S1 gene phylogenetic tree, LX4-type (GI-19) was the most dominant genotype, which was different from that during 1985–2008. The second most dominant genotype was LDT3-A-type, but this genotype disappeared after 2012. New-type 1 (GVI-1) isolates showed increasing tendency and there were four aa (QKEP) located in the hypervariable region (HVR) III and one aa (S) insertion in all the New-type 1 isolates. Both the analyses of amino acid entropy and molecular evolutionary rate revealed that the variations from large to small were S1, E, M, and N. Purifying selection was detected in the S1, E, M, and N gene proteins, which was different from the positive selection during 1985–2008. Six isolates were confirmed to be recombinants, possibly generated from a vaccine virus of the 4/91-type or LDT3-A-type and a circulating virus. The estimated times for the most recent common ancestors based on the S1, E, M, and N genes were the years of 1744, 1893, 1940, and 1945, respectively. Bayesian skyline analysis revealed a sharp decrease in genetic diversity of all the four structural genes after 2010 and since late 2015, the viral population rapidly rose. In conclusion, the IBVs circulating in southern China over the past decade have experienced a remarkable change in genetic diversity, dominant genotypes, and selection pressure, indicating the importance of permanent monitoring of circulating strains and the urgency for developing new vaccines to counteract the emerging LX4-type and New-type IBVs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wensheng Fan
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China.
| | - Ning Tang
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China.
| | - Zhihua Dong
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China.
| | - Jiming Chen
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China.
| | - Wen Zhang
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China.
| | - Changrun Zhao
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China.
| | - Yining He
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China.
| | - Meng Li
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China.
| | - Cuilan Wu
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China.
| | - Tianchao Wei
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China.
| | - Teng Huang
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China.
| | - Meilan Mo
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China.
| | - Ping Wei
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China.
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17
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Xu L, Ren M, Sheng J, Ma T, Han Z, Zhao Y, Sun J, Liu S. Genetic and biological characteristics of four novel recombinant avian infectious bronchitis viruses isolated in China. Virus Res 2019; 263:87-97. [PMID: 30641197 PMCID: PMC7185608 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2019.01.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2018] [Revised: 12/29/2018] [Accepted: 01/10/2019] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Two IBV strains were proved to be originated from multiple recombination events. Viruses with very similar S1 gene sequences showed varying biological features. Point mutations were observed in the RBD and HVRs of the recombinant viruses. Point mutations likely have an effect on these differences in biological characteristics.
Infectious bronchitis viruses (IBVs) of GI-13 (793/B) and GI-19 (QX/LX4) lineages have been frequently detected in China in recent years. Naturally recombinant IBVs originating from the GI-13 and GI-19 lineages have also been isolated from chicken flocks with respiratory and renal problems in China. Thorough genetic and biological investigations of these recombinant viruses have led to speculation regarding their origin, evolution, and control. In order to confirm the previous results and further extend our understanding about the characteristics of the four recombinant IBV strains we had previously identified (I0718/17, I0722/17, I0724/17, and I0737/17), we conducted phylogenetic analysis by comparing their complete S1 gene sequences with those of 71 reference strains of different genotypes and lineages. We identified a close relationship between the S1 sequences of the four strains and those of GI-13 strains. The results of complete genome sequence analysis confirmed the previously identified recombination events in the four IBV strains and revealed additional recombination events in different genomic regions of strains I0718/17 and I0724/17, suggesting that the two strains originated from multiple recombination events between 4/91-like and YX10-like viruses. We comparatively evaluated the antigenicity, pathogenicity, and affinity of the four recombinant viruses and their deduced parental strains in the trachea and kidneys. Some of the strains showed comparable antigenic relatedness, pathogenicity, and affinity for the trachea and kidneys among each other and with their parental viruses; however, some of them showed varying biological characteristics. Point mutations observed in the receptor-binding domain and hypervariable region of the S1 subunit of the spike protein likely have an effect on these differences in biological characteristics, although the influence of other factors—such as host innate-immune responses and changes in genomic regions beyond the S1 protein—might also be responsible for such changes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liwen Xu
- Division of Avian Infectious Diseases, State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, 150001, People's Republic of China
| | - Mengting Ren
- Division of Avian Infectious Diseases, State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, 150001, People's Republic of China
| | - Jie Sheng
- Division of Avian Infectious Diseases, State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, 150001, People's Republic of China
| | - Tianxin Ma
- Division of Avian Infectious Diseases, State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, 150001, People's Republic of China
| | - Zongxi Han
- Division of Avian Infectious Diseases, State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, 150001, People's Republic of China
| | - Yan Zhao
- Division of Avian Infectious Diseases, State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, 150001, People's Republic of China
| | - Junfeng Sun
- Division of Avian Infectious Diseases, State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, 150001, People's Republic of China
| | - Shengwang Liu
- Division of Avian Infectious Diseases, State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, 150001, People's Republic of China.
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