Inhibitory effect of Salvia miltiorrhia BGE on matrix metalloproteinase-9 activity and migration of TNF-α-induced human aortic smooth muscle cells

CircSKA3 is Associated With the Risk of Extracranial Artery Stenosis and Plaque Instability Among Ischemic Stroke Patients

Circular RNA circSKA3 (spindle and kinetochore-related complex subunit 3) has been identified as a prognostic factor in ischemic stroke. The objective of this study was to investigate the association of circSKA3 with the risk of extracranial artery stenosis (ECAS) and plaque instability in patients with ischemic stroke. We constructed a competing endogenous RNA (ceRNA) network regulated by circSKA3 based on differentially expressed circRNAs and mRNAs between five patients and five controls. Gene Ontology (GO) analysis was performed on the 65 mRNAs within the network, revealing their primary involvement in inflammatory biological processes. A total of 284 ischemic stroke patients who underwent various imaging examinations were included for further analyses. Each 1 standard deviation increase in the log-transformed blood circSKA3 level was associated with a 56.3% increased risk of ECAS (P = 0.005) and a 142.1% increased risk of plaque instability (P = 0.005). Patients in the top tertile of circSKA3 had a 2.418-fold (P < 0.05) risk of ECAS compared to the reference group (P for trend = 0.02). CircSKA3 demonstrated a significant but limited ability to discriminate the presence of ECAS (AUC = 0.594, P = 0.015) and unstable carotid plaques (AUC = 0.647, P = 0.034). CircSKA3 improved the reclassification power for ECAS (NRI: 9.86%, P = 0.012; IDI: 2.97%, P = 0.007) and plaque instability (NRI: 36.73%, P = 0.008; IDI: 7.05%, P = 0.04) beyond conventional risk factors. CircSKA3 played an important role in the pathogenesis of ischemic stroke by influencing inflammatory biological processes. Increased circSKA3 was positively associated with the risk of ECAS and plaque instability among ischemic stroke patients.

Role of Lipid Accumulation and Inflammation in Atherosclerosis: Focus on Molecular and Cellular Mechanisms

Atherosclerosis is a chronic lipid-driven and maladaptive inflammatory disease of arterial intima. It is characterized by the dysfunction of lipid homeostasis and signaling pathways that control the inflammation. This article reviews the role of inflammation and lipid accumulation, especially low-density lipoprotein (LDL), in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis, with more emphasis on cellular mechanisms. Furthermore, this review will briefly highlight the role of medicinal plants, long non-coding RNA (lncRNA), and microRNAs in the pathophysiology, treatment, and prevention of atherosclerosis. Lipid homeostasis at various levels, including receptor-mediated uptake, synthesis, storage, metabolism, efflux, and its impairments are important for the development of atherosclerosis. The major source of cholesterol and lipid accumulation in the arterial wall is proatherogenic modified low-density lipoprotein (mLDL). Modified lipoproteins, such as oxidized low-density lipoprotein (ox-LDL) and LDL binding with proteoglycans of the extracellular matrix in the intima of blood vessels, cause aggregation of lipoprotein particles, endothelial damage, leukocyte recruitment, foam cell formation, and inflammation. Inflammation is the key contributor to atherosclerosis and participates in all phases of atherosclerosis. Also, several studies have shown that microRNAs and lncRNAs have appeared as key regulators of several physiological and pathophysiological processes in atherosclerosis, including regulation of HDL biogenesis, cholesterol efflux, lipid metabolism, regulating of smooth muscle proliferation, and controlling of inflammation. Thus, both lipid homeostasis and the inflammatory immune response are closely linked, and their cellular and molecular pathways interact with each other.

Phytotherapy for Cardiovascular Disease: A Bench-to-Bedside Approach

At present, cardiovascular disease (CVD) remains the leading cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide, and global trends suggest that this panorama will persist or worsen in the near future. Thus, optimization of treatment strategies and the introduction of novel therapeutic alternatives for CVD represent key objectives in contemporary biomedical research. In recent years, phytotherapy-defined as the therapeutic use of whole or minimally modified plant components-has ignited large scientific interest, with a resurgence of abundant investigation on a wide array of medicinal herbs (MH) for CVD and other conditions. Numerous MH have been observed to intervene in the pathophysiology of CVD via a myriad of molecular mechanisms, including antiinflammatory, anti-oxidant, and other beneficial properties, which translate into the amelioration of three essential aspects of the pathogenesis of CVD: Dyslipidemia, atherosclerosis, and hypertension. Although the preclinical data in this scenario is very rich, the true clinical impact of MH and their purported mechanisms of action is less clear, as large-scale robust research in this regard is in relatively early stages and faces important methodological challenges. This review offers a comprehensive look at the most prominent preclinical and clinical evidence currently available concerning the use of MH in the treatment of CVD from a bench-to-bedside approach.

Effects and mechanisms of Danshen-Shanzha herb-pair for atherosclerosis treatment using network pharmacology and experimental pharmacology

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The danshen (the root of Salvia miltiorrhiza Bge.)-shanzha (the fruit of Crataegus pinnatifida Bge. var. major N.E.Br.) (DS) herb combination is a commonly used traditional Chinese medicine with cardiovascular disease (CVD) treatment potential.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In this study, we investigated the anti-atherosclerotic effects and mechanisms of DS by the integration of network pharmacology and polypharmacology. Eight main components were selected for target fishing by PharmMapper.

RESULTS

The network pharmacological study indicated that DS may target 41 proteins and 16 pathways associated with inflammation, lipid metabolism and endothelial protection, which indicates that DS probably adjusts these processes as part of its anti-atherosclerotic activities. Furthermore, this hypothesis was verified by polypharmacology using an atherosclerotic model. Histopathological examination showed that DS inhibited pathological changes in the arteries of atherosclerotic rats and reduced the intima-media thickness (IMT). DS significantly reduced the levels of total cholesterol (TC), triglyceride (TG), and low-density lipoprotein-cholesterol (LDL-C) and increased the high-density lipoprotein-cholesterol (HDL-C) level in the blood. DS also decreased the concentrations of interleukin (IL)-1β and IL-18, indicating anti-inflammation activity. In addition, DS increased the serum levels of nitric oxide (NO) and 6-keto-prostaglandin F_1α (6-keto-PGF_1α) and decreased the serum levels of endothelin (ET) and thromboxane B₂ (TXB₂), indicating an endothelial protective effect.

CONCLUSIONS

In conclusion, DS has an anti-atherosclerotic ability to lower lipid concentrations and to protect endothelial function, and it also has anti-inflammatory activity.

Matrix metalloproteinases in pro-atherosclerotic arterial remodeling

Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) is a family of Zn²⁺ endopeptidases that process various components of the extracellular matrix. These enzymes are also involved in activation and inhibition of signaling cascades through proteolytic cleavage of surface receptors. Moreover, MMPs play a key role in tissue remodeling and and repair. Dysregulation of MMPs is observed in patholofgical conditions, including atherosclerosis, which is associated with hyperactivation of MMPs, aberrant tissue remodeling and neovascularization of the growing atherosclerotic plaques. This makes MMPs interesting therapeutic targets that can be employed for developing novel therapies to treat atherosclerosis and its complications. Currently, a growing number of synthetic MMP inhibitors is available. In this review, we will discuss the role of these enzymes in atherosclerosis pathology and the ways of their pothential therapeutic use.

Matrix Metalloproteinases, Vascular Remodeling, and Vascular Disease

Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are a family of zinc-dependent endopeptidases that degrade various proteins in the extracellular matrix (ECM). Typically, MMPs have a propeptide sequence, a catalytic metalloproteinase domain with catalytic zinc, a hinge region or linker peptide, and a hemopexin domain. MMPs are commonly classified on the basis of their substrates and the organization of their structural domains into collagenases, gelatinases, stromelysins, matrilysins, membrane-type (MT)-MMPs, and other MMPs. MMPs are secreted by many cells including fibroblasts, vascular smooth muscle (VSM), and leukocytes. MMPs are regulated at the level of mRNA expression and by activation through removal of the propeptide domain from their latent zymogen form. MMPs are often secreted in an inactive proMMP form, which is cleaved to the active form by various proteinases including other MMPs. MMPs degrade various protein substrates in ECM including collagen and elastin. MMPs could also influence endothelial cell function as well as VSM cell migration, proliferation, Ca²⁺ signaling, and contraction. MMPs play a role in vascular tissue remodeling during various biological processes such as angiogenesis, embryogenesis, morphogenesis, and wound repair. Alterations in specific MMPs could influence arterial remodeling and lead to various pathological disorders such as hypertension, preeclampsia, atherosclerosis, aneurysm formation, as well as excessive venous dilation and lower extremity venous disease. MMPs are often regulated by endogenous tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMPs), and the MMP/TIMP ratio often determines the extent of ECM protein degradation and tissue remodeling. MMPs may serve as biomarkers and potential therapeutic targets for certain vascular disorders.

Matrix Metalloproteinase Inhibitors as Investigational and Therapeutic Tools in Unrestrained Tissue Remodeling and Pathological Disorders

Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are zinc-dependent proteolytic enzymes that degrade various proteins in the extracellular matrix (ECM). MMPs may also regulate the activity of membrane receptors and postreceptor signaling mechanisms and thereby affect cell function. The MMP family includes collagenases, gelatinases, stromelysins, matrilysins, membrane-type MMPs, and other MMPs. Inactive proMMPs are cleaved by other MMPs or proteases into active MMPs, which interact with various protein substrates in ECM and cell surface. MMPs regulate important biological processes such as vascular remodeling and angiogenesis and may be involved in the pathogenesis of cardiovascular disorders such as hypertension, atherosclerosis, and aneurysm. The role of MMPs is often assessed by measuring their mRNA expression, protein levels, and proteolytic activity using gel zymography. MMP inhibitors are also used to assess the role of MMPs in different biological processes and pathological conditions. MMP activity is regulated by endogenous tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMPs), and the MMP/TIMP balance could determine the net MMP activity, ECM turnover, and tissue remodeling. Also, several synthetic MMP inhibitors have been developed. Synthetic MMP inhibitors include a large number of zinc-binding globulins (ZBGs), in addition to non-ZBGs and mechanism-based inhibitors. MMP inhibitors have been proposed as potential tools in the management of osteoarthritis, cancer, and cardiovascular disorders. However, most MMP inhibitors have broad-spectrum actions on multiple MMPs and could cause undesirable musculoskeletal side effects. Currently, doxycycline is the only MMP inhibitor approved by the Food and Drug Administration. New generation biological and synthetic MMP inhibitors may show greater MMP specificity and fewer side effects and could be useful in targeting specific MMPs, reducing unrestrained tissue remodeling, and the management of MMP-related pathological disorders.

Danshensu, a major water-soluble component of Salvia miltiorrhiza, enhances the radioresponse for Lewis Lung Carcinoma xenografts in mice

The molecule 3-(3,4-dihydroxyphenyl)-2-hydroxypropanoic acid (danshensu), a herbal preparation used in traditional Chinese medicine, has been found to possess potential antitumor and anti-angiogenesis effects. The aim of the present study was to investigate the efficacy of the combination of radiation therapy (RT) with danshensu in the treatment of Lewis lung carcinoma (LLC) xenografts, whilst exploring and evaluating the mechanism involved. In total, 8-week old female C57BL/6J mice were randomly assigned into 3 groups to receive: RT, RT + cisplatin and RT + danshensu, respectively, when LLC reached 100–150 mm³. Each group was divided into 7 subgroups according to the different irradiation doses that were administered. Tumor growth curves were created and the sensitization enhancement ratios of the drugs were calculated. The experiment was then repeated, and the 4 groups of tumor-bearing mice were treated with natural saline, danshensu, RT + danshensu and RT, respectively. The mice were sacrificed on day 7, and tumor tissue and blood were collected to determine microvessel density, the expression of proangiogenic factors, and the levels of blood thromboxane B₂ and 6-keto-prostaglandin-F1α. Tumor hypoxia was also detected using in vivo fluorescence imaging. With respect to LLC xenografts, treatment with danshensu + RT significantly enhanced the effects of tumor growth inhibition (P<0.05). Furthermore, tumor vasculature was remodeled and microcirculation was improved, which significantly reduced tumor hypoxia (P<0.05). The present study demonstrated that danshensu significantly enhanced the radioresponse of LLC xenografts in mice. The mechanism involved may be associated with the alleviation of tumor cell hypoxia following treatment with danshensu + RT, caused by the improvement of tumor microcirculation and the remodeling of tumor vasculature.

Anti-atherosclerotic plants which modulate the phenotype of vascular smooth muscle cells

BACKGROUND

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) remains the leading cause of global death, with atherosclerosis being a major contributor to this mortality. Several mechanisms are implicated in the pathogenesis of this disease. A key element in the development and progression of atherosclerotic lesions is the phenotype of vascular smooth muscle cells. Under pathophysiologic conditions such as injury, these cells switch from a contractile to a synthetic phenotype that often possesses high proliferative and migratory capacities.

PURPOSE

Despite major advances made in the management and treatment of atherosclerosis, mortality associated with this disease remains high. This mandates that other approaches be sought. Herbal medicine, especially for the treatment of CVD, has been gaining more attention in recent years. This is in no small part due to the evidence-based values associated with the consumption of many plants as well as the relatively cheaper prices, easier access and conventional folk medicine "inherited" over generations. Sections: In this review, we provide a brief introduction about the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis then we highlight the role of vascular smooth muscle cells in this disease, especially when a phenotypic switch of these cells arises. We then thoroughly discuss the various plants that show potentially beneficial effects as anti-atherosclerotic, with prime attention given to herbs and plants that inhibit the phenotypic switch of vascular smooth muscle cells.

CONCLUSION

Accumulating evidence provides the justification for the use of botanicals in the treatment or prevention of atherosclerosis. However, further studies, especially clinical ones, are warranted to better define several pharmacological parameters of these herbs, such as toxicity, tolerability, and efficacy.

Salvia miltiorrhiza: Traditional medicinal uses, chemistry, and pharmacology

Salvia miltiorrhiza Bunge (SM) is a very popular medicinal plant that has been extensively applied for many years to treat various diseases, especially coronary heart diseases and cerebrovascular diseases, either alone or in combination with other Chinese plant-based medicines. Although a large number of studies on SM have been performed, they are scattered across a variety of publications. The present review is an up-to-date summary of the published scientific information about the traditional uses, chemical constituents, pharmacological effects, side effects, and drug interactions with SM, in order to lay the foundation for further investigations and better utilization of SM. SM contains diverse chemical components including diterpenoid quinones, hydrophilic phenolic acids, and essential oils. Many pharmacological studies have been done on SM during the last 30 years, focusing on the cardiovascular and cerebrovascular effects, and the antioxidative, neuroprotective, antifibrotic, anti-inflammatory, and antineoplastic activities. The research results strongly support the notion that SM has beneficial therapeutic properties and has a potential of being an effective adaptogenic remedy.

Matrix metalloproteinase inhibitors as investigative tools in the pathogenesis and management of vascular disease

Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are proteolytic enzymes that degrade various components of the extracellular matrix (ECM). MMPs could also regulate the activity of several non-ECM bioactive substrates and consequently affect different cellular functions. Members of the MMPs family include collagenases, gelatinases, stromelysins, matrilysins, membrane-type MMPs, and others. Pro-MMPs are cleaved into active MMPs, which in turn act on various substrates in the ECM and on the cell surface. MMPs play an important role in the regulation of numerous physiological processes including vascular remodeling and angiogenesis. MMPs may also be involved in vascular diseases such as hypertension, atherosclerosis, aortic aneurysm, and varicose veins. MMPs also play a role in the hemodynamic and vascular changes associated with pregnancy and preeclampsia. The role of MMPs is commonly assessed by measuring their gene expression, protein amount, and proteolytic activity using gel zymography. Because there are no specific activators of MMPs, MMP inhibitors are often used to investigate the role of MMPs in different physiologic processes and in the pathogenesis of specific diseases. MMP inhibitors include endogenous tissue inhibitors (TIMPs) and pharmacological inhibitors such as zinc chelators, doxycycline, and marimastat. MMP inhibitors have been evaluated as diagnostic and therapeutic tools in cancer, autoimmune disease, and cardiovascular disease. Although several MMP inhibitors have been synthesized and tested both experimentally and clinically, only one MMP inhibitor, i.e., doxycycline, is currently approved by the Food and Drug Administration. This is mainly due to the undesirable side effects of MMP inhibitors especially on the musculoskeletal system. While most experimental and clinical trials of MMP inhibitors have not demonstrated significant benefits, some trials still showed promising results. With the advent of new genetic and pharmacological tools, disease-specific MMP inhibitors with fewer undesirable effects are being developed and could be useful in the management of vascular disease.

Monascus purpureus-fermented rice inhibits tumor necrosis factor-α-induced upregulation of matrix metalloproteinase 2 and 9 in human aortic smooth muscle cells

OBJECTIVES

Inflammation is associated with atherosclerosis. Cholestin (Monascus purpureus-fermented rice) contains a naturally occurring statin, which has lipid-modulating, anti-inflammatory and antioxidative effects. This study aimed to investigate the effects of Cholestin extract on the expression of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-2 and MMP-9 by tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α-treated human aortic smooth muscle cells (HASMCs).

METHODS

Zymography, reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction and immunoblot analyses were used for analysis of MMP expression of TNF-α-stimulated HASMCs. Gel shift assay was used for analysis of transcription factor nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) activation. Intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation was also analysed.

KEY FINDINGS

The supplement of HASMCs with Cholestin extract significantly suppresses enzymatic activities of MMP-2 and MMP-9 in TNF-α-stimulated HASMCs. RT-PCR and immunoblot analyses show that Cholestin extract significantly attenuates TNF-α-induced mRNA and protein expressions of MMP-2 and MMP-9. Gel shift assays show that Cholestin treatment reduces TNF-α-activated NF-κB. Furthermore, Cholestin also attenuates intracellular ROS generation in TNF-α-treated HASMCs. The supplement with an ROS scavenger N-acetyl-cysteine (glutathione precursor) gives similar results to Cholestin.

CONCLUSIONS

Cholestin reduces TNF-α-stimulated MMP-2 and MMP-9 expression as well as downregulating NF-κB activation and intracellular ROS formation in HASMCs, supporting the notion that the natural compound Cholestin may have potential application in clinical atherosclerosis disease.

Proteomic screening of antioxidant effects exhibited by radix Salvia miltiorrhiza aqueous extract in cultured rat aortic smooth muscle cells under homocysteine treatment

AIM OF THE STUDY

Still little is known about the cellular mechanisms that contribute to the attenuated proliferation of aortic smooth muscle cells under the influence of the oxidative stress factors such as homocysteine (Hcy). Thus, we aimed to evaluate whether Salvia miltiorrhiza Bunge (Labiatae), a Chinese medicinal herb widely used in folk medicine for therapy of variety of human cardiovascular disorders would modulate this Hcy promoted growth effect in model animal aortic cells system.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The Salvia miltiorrhiza roots aqueous extract (SMAE) containing 3,4-dihydroxybenzoic acid, 3,4-dihydroxyphenyl lactic acid and salvianolic acid B, as confirmed by narrow-bore HPLC analyses with binary gradient elution was used in variable concentrations for the treatment of the rat aortic smooth muscle A10 cells under Hcy stimulation. Two-dimensional electrophoresis (2-DE) coupled with MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry was applied for the elucidation of protein changes characterizing the response of the rat A10 cells into the Hcy-induced oxidative stress.

RESULTS

This study showed that a low dose (0.015 mg/mL) of the SMAE significantly inhibited growth (>60%, p<0.05) of the Hcy stimulated rat A10 cells. In addition, concentration of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) obviously decreased in the rat A10 cells after its incubation with SMAE in terms of catalase increasing activity. Next, marked down-regulation of protein kinase C beta-1 (PKC beta-1) and phosphorylated mitogen-activated protein kinase (p-MAPK) expression suggest that observed inhibitory effect of the polyphenol-rich SMAE on the Hcy-induced growth of rat A10 cells was realized via the PKC/p44/42 MAPK-dependent pathway. The intensity changes of 10 protein spots in response of the rat A10 cells to the Hcy-induced oxidative damage as alpha-4-tropomyosin, vimentin, F1F0-ATP synthase (beta subunit), glucose regulated protein 75 (GRP75), actin (fragment), prohibitin, capping protein, plakoglobin, endoplasmic reticulum protein (ERp29), and peptidylprolyl isomerase A (PPIase A), were detected with statistical significance (p<0.05). Meanwhile, it was showed that used here SMAE resist carbonylation of specific cytoskeleton and chaperone proteins as vimentin, alpha-4-tropomyosin and GRP75, respectively, leading to phenotype transformations in the rat A10 cells.

CONCLUSION

These data suggest that applied here SMAE exerts its protective effect through circulating ROS suppression and subsequent modulation of protein carbonylation in rat aortic smooth muscle A10 cells. Redox-proteomics protocol highlighted in this study may be applicable in facilitating the assessing potential novel molecular therapeutic targets to reduce cardiovascular risk related with elevated Hcy levels in various human populations and elucidating new mechanisms through which protein functions can be regulated by the redox status with the use of naturally occurring antioxidants.

Anti-allergic activity of an ethanol extract from Salviae miltiorrhiza

As part of an ongoing investigation aimed at the discovery of novel bioactive medicinal herbs with anti-inflammatory properties, the effects of an ethanolic extract from the parts of Salviae miltiorrhiza Bunge (ESM) were evaluated using in vitro and in vivo animal model analysis. ESM inhibited cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and COX-1-dependent phases of prostaglandin D2 (PGD2) generation in bone marrow-derived mast cells (BMMC) in a concentration-dependent manner with IC50 values of 3.96 microg/mL and 21.54 microg/mL, respectively. Furthermore, ESM inhibited leukotriene C4 (LTC4) production with an IC50 value of 2.6 microg/mL. These results clearly demonstrated the dual COX-2 selective/5-lipoxygenase inhibitory activity that ESM possessed. ESM strongly inhibited a degranulation reaction in a dose dependent manner within a BMMC system, with an IC50 value of 22.4 microg/mL. Additionally, ESM was tested in a rat passive cutaneous anaphylaxis (PCA) reaction assay by oral administration (25 to 100 mg/kg). ESM dose-dependently inhibited the PCA reaction, which was activated by anti-dinirophenyl (DNP) IgE. These results suggested that ESM might be beneficial in regulating various allergic reactions.

Cardioprotective effects of the combined use of puerarin and Danshensu on acute ischemic myocardial injury in rats

Ischemic heart diseases are the leading cause of death in both developed and developing countries over the past decades. The aim of this study was to investigate the cardioprotective effects of the complex preparation (called Shenge), made of puerarin and Danshensu, on acute ischemic myocardial injury in rats and its underlying mechanisms. The left anterior descending (LAD) coronary artery was occluded to induce myocardial ischemia in hearts of SD rats. Shenge was injected into the tail vein 15 min after occlusion at doses of 0, 30, 60 or 120 mg/kg. Then, the ST elevation was measured at 60, 120 and 240 min after Shenge administration. The infarct size, serum levels of creatine kinase isoenzyme-MB (CK-MB), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), superoxide dismutase (SOD) and malondialdehyde (MDA), and the ST elevation were measured after the rats were killed. Shenge decreased the ST elevation induced by acute myocardial ischemia, reduced infarct size, serum levels of CK-MB, LDH and MDA and increased the serum activity of SOD in a dose-dependent manner. The combined use of puerarin and Danshensu at a ratio of 1:1 shows the most effective activity. In conclusion, Shenge exerts significant cardioprotective effects against acute ischemic myocardial injury in rats, likely through its antioxidant and antilipid peroxidation properties, and thus may be used as an effective and promising medicine for both prophylaxis and treatment of ischemic heart disease.