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Musaazi IG, McLoughlin S, Murphy HM, Rose JB, Hofstra N, Tumwebaze IK, Verbyla ME. A systematic review and meta-analysis of pathogen reduction in onsite sanitation systems. WATER RESEARCH X 2023; 18:100171. [PMID: 37250291 PMCID: PMC10214292 DOI: 10.1016/j.wroa.2023.100171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2022] [Revised: 01/20/2023] [Accepted: 02/14/2023] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
The safe management of fecal sludge from the 3.4 billion people worldwide that use onsite sanitation systems can greatly reduce the global infectious disease burden. However, there is limited knowledge about the role of design, operational, and environmental factors on pathogen survival in pit latrines, urine diverting desiccation toilets, and other types of onsite toilets. We conducted a systematic literature review and meta-analysis to characterize pathogen reduction rates in fecal sludge, feces, and human excreta with respect to pH, temperature, moisture content, and the use of additives for desiccation, alkalinization, or disinfection. A meta-analysis of 1,382 data points extracted from 243 experiments described in 26 articles revealed significant differences between the decay rates and T99 values of pathogens and indicators from different microbial groups. The overall median T99 values were 4.8 days, 29 days, >341 days, and 429 days for bacteria, viruses, protozoan (oo)cysts, and Ascaris eggs, respectively. As expected, higher pH values, higher temperatures, and the application of lime all significantly predicted greater pathogen reduction rates but the use of lime by itself was more effective for bacteria and viruses than for Ascaris eggs, unless urea was also added. In multiple lab-scale experiments, the application of urea with enough lime or ash to reach a pH of 10 - 12 and a sustained concentration of 2,000 - 6,000 mg/L of non-protonated NH3-N reduced Ascaris eggs more rapidly than without urea. In general, the storage of fecal sludge for 6 months adequately controls hazards from viruses and bacteria, but much longer storage times or alkaline treatment with urea and low moisture or heat is needed to control hazards from protozoa and helminths. More research is needed to demonstrate the efficacy of lime, ash, and urea in the field. More studies of protozoan pathogens are also needed, as very few qualifying experiments were found for this group.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isaac G. Musaazi
- Department of Civil, Construction, and Environmental Engineering, San Diego State University, San Diego, CA 92182, United States
| | - Shane McLoughlin
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, College of Public Health, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Heather M. Murphy
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, College of Public Health, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Joan B. Rose
- Department of Fisheries and Wildlife, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, United States
| | - Nynke Hofstra
- Water Systems and Global Change Group, Wageningen University, the Netherlands
| | - Innocent K. Tumwebaze
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, College of Public Health, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Matthew E. Verbyla
- Department of Civil, Construction, and Environmental Engineering, San Diego State University, San Diego, CA 92182, United States
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Kalulu K, Thole B, Mkandawire T, Kululanga G. Application of Process Intensification in the Treatment of Pit Latrine Sludge from Informal Settlements in Blantyre City, Malawi. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2020; 17:ijerph17093296. [PMID: 32397358 PMCID: PMC7246648 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17093296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2020] [Revised: 04/15/2020] [Accepted: 04/20/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Many developing countries lack the infrastructure needed for the treatment of fecal sludge. One limitation in implementing available treatment options is the limited availability of land in the urban areas of these countries. This paper investigated the application of process intensification as a way of reducing the land area required to dewater and sanitize pit latrine sludge from informal settlements in Blantyre City, Malawi. The intensification of the sludge treatment process was achieved by enhancing dewatering through the application of additives and by combining the dewatering and sanitization stages. Nine combinations of sludge, lime and rice husk dosages, in addition to a control, were simultaneously loaded on unplanted drying bed units to dewater for 29 days. The study found a significant reduction of 21% to 73% in the land area required to dewater and sanitize pit latrine sludge. From the study, process intensification was shown to have the potential to significantly reduce the land area required to dewater and sanitize pit latrine sludge from informal settlements in Malawi cities. This makes it an option that can be implemented close to informal settlements, despite land limitation in these areas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Khumbo Kalulu
- Department of Environmental Health, University of Malawi, Faculty of Applied Sciences, P/Bag 303, Chichiri, Blantyre 3, 312225, Malawi
- Correspondence: ; Tel.:+265-999-691-961
| | - Bernard Thole
- Department of Physics and Biochemical Sciences, University of Malawi, Faculty of Applied Sciences, P/Bag 303, Chichiri, Blantyre 3, 312225, Malawi;
| | - Theresa Mkandawire
- Department of Civil Engineering, University of Malawi, Faculty of Engineering, P/Bag 303, Chichiri, Blantyre 3, 312225, Malawi; (T.M.); (G.K.)
| | - Grant Kululanga
- Department of Civil Engineering, University of Malawi, Faculty of Engineering, P/Bag 303, Chichiri, Blantyre 3, 312225, Malawi; (T.M.); (G.K.)
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Hashemi S, Boudaghpour S, Han M. Evaluation of different natural additives effects on the composting process of source separated feces in resource-oriented sanitation systems. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2019; 185:109667. [PMID: 31569031 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2019.109667] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2019] [Revised: 09/06/2019] [Accepted: 09/08/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
In most resource-oriented sanitation (ROS) systems, the composting process has been a sustainable treatment method for source separated feces. Nonetheless, a slow and low degradation efficiency-combined with hygienic concerns, especially for the high amount of waste produced -makes the selection of the composting bulk additives a critical decision for the process. This study presents the efficiency improvement of adding different natural additives to enhance the composting process of the source separated feces in ROS systems. Three different natural additives, including sawdust, rice husk, and rice husk charcoal were utilized for the composting process of fresh feces with an additive w/w ratio of 2:1. To evaluate the impact of additives on compost properties, chemical, physical, and biological characteristics of composting materials were measured. Results indicated that using rice husk charcoal as an additive of the process was effective and generated a degradation of more than 40% of total organic carbon (TOC), reduced the nitrogen loss to less than 0.2%, and improved the germination index (GI) to more than 80%. Moreover, in terms of fecal indicators, the Escherichia coli (E. coli) stains were totally removed after five weeks. The efficacy of utilizing rice husk charcoal as a composting matrix in resource oriented sanitation systems can be, therefore, demonstrated as a nature-based treatment for source separated feces.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shervin Hashemi
- Institute for Environmental Research, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea.
| | - Siamak Boudaghpour
- Faculty of Civil Engineering, K. N. Toosi University of Technology, Tehran, Iran.
| | - Mooyoung Han
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
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Zhou X, Li Z, Zheng T, Yan Y, Li P, Odey EA, Mang HP, Uddin SMN. Review of global sanitation development. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2018; 120:246-261. [PMID: 30103124 PMCID: PMC6192828 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2018.07.047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2018] [Revised: 07/30/2018] [Accepted: 07/31/2018] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
The implementation of the United Nations (UN) Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) has resulted in an increased focus on developing innovative, sustainable sanitation techniques to address the demand for adequate and equitable sanitation in low-income areas. We examined the background, current situation, challenges, and perspectives of global sanitation. We used bibliometric analysis and word cluster analysis to evaluate sanitation research from 1992 to 2016 based on the Science Citation Index EXPANDED (SCI-EXPANDED) and Social Sciences Citation Index (SSCI) databases. Our results show that sanitation is a comprehensive field connected with multiple categories, and the increasing number of publications reflects a strong interest in this research area. Most of the research took place in developed countries, especially the USA, although sanitation problems are more serious in developing countries. Innovations in sanitation techniques may keep susceptible populations from contracting diseases caused by various kinds of contaminants and microorganisms. Hence, the hygienization of human excreta, resource recovery, and removal of micro-pollutants from excreta can serve as effective sustainable solutions. Commercialized technologies, like composting, anaerobic digestion, and storage, are reliable but still face challenges in addressing the links between the political, social, institutional, cultural, and educational aspects of sanitation. Innovative technologies, such as Microbial Fuel Cells (MFCs), Microbial Electrolysis Cells (MECs), and struvite precipitation, are at the TRL (Technology readiness levels) 8 level, meaning that they qualify as "actual systems completed and qualified through test and demonstration." Solutions that take into consideration economic feasibility and all the different aspects of sanitation are required. There is an urgent demand for holistic solutions considering government support, social acceptability, as well as technological reliability that can be effectively adapted to local conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoqin Zhou
- School of Energy and Environmental Engineering, Beijing Key Laboratory of Resource-oriented Treatment of Industrial Pollutants, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Zifu Li
- School of Energy and Environmental Engineering, Beijing Key Laboratory of Resource-oriented Treatment of Industrial Pollutants, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, China.
| | - Tianlong Zheng
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 18 Shuangqing Road, Haidian District, Beijing 100085, China.
| | - Yichang Yan
- School of Energy and Environmental Engineering, Beijing Key Laboratory of Resource-oriented Treatment of Industrial Pollutants, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Pengyu Li
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environment Simulation and Pollution Control, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 18 Shuangqing Road, Haidian District, Beijing 100085, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, 19(A) Yuquan Road, Shijingshan District, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Emmanuel Alepu Odey
- School of Energy and Environmental Engineering, Beijing Key Laboratory of Resource-oriented Treatment of Industrial Pollutants, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Heinz Peter Mang
- School of Energy and Environmental Engineering, Beijing Key Laboratory of Resource-oriented Treatment of Industrial Pollutants, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Sayed Mohammad Nazim Uddin
- Department of Geography, Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Victoria, PO Box 1700 STN CSC, Victoria, BC V8W 2Y2, Canada
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Riungu J, Ronteltap M, van Lier JB. Build-up and impact of volatile fatty acids on E. coli and A. lumbricoides during co-digestion of urine diverting dehydrating toilet (UDDT-F) faeces. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2018; 215:22-31. [PMID: 29550544 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2018.02.076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2017] [Revised: 11/15/2017] [Accepted: 02/21/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
This study examined the potential of Escherichia coli (E. coli) and Ascaris lumbricoides (A. lumbricoides) eggs inactivation in faecal matter coming from urine diverting dehydrating toilets (UDDT-F) by applying high concentrations of volatile fatty acids (VFAs) during anaerobic stabilization. The impact of individual VFAs on E. coli and A. lumbricoides eggs inactivation in UDDT-F was assessed by applying various concentrations of store-bought acetate, propionate and butyrate. High VFA concentrations were also obtained by performing co-digestion of UDDT-F with organic market waste (OMW) using various mixing ratios. All experiments were performed under anaerobic conditions in laboratory scale batch assays at 35±1 °C. A correlation was observed between E. coli log inactivation and VFA concentration. Store bought VFA spiked UDDT-F substrates achieved E. coli inactivation up to 4.7 log units/day compared to UDDT-F control sample that achieved 0.6 log units/day. In co-digesting UDDT-F and organic market waste (OMW), a ND-VFA concentration of 4800-6000 mg/L was needed to achieve E. coli log inactivation to below detectable levels and complete A. lumbricoides egg inactivation in less than four days. E. coli and A. lumbricoides egg inactivation was found to be related to the concentration of non-dissociated VFA (ND-VFA), increasing with an increase in the OMW fraction in the feed substrate. Highest ND-VFA concentration of 6500 mg/L was obtained at a UDDT-F:OMW ratio 1:1, below which there was a decline, attributed to product inhibition of acidogenic bacteria. Results of our present research showed the potential for E. coli and A. lumbricoides inactivation from UDDT-F up to WHO standards by allowing VFA build-up during anaerobic stabilization of faecal matter.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joy Riungu
- Environmental Engineering and Water Technology Department, UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education, Westvest 7, 2611 AX Delft, The Netherlands.
| | - Mariska Ronteltap
- Environmental Engineering and Water Technology Department, UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education, Westvest 7, 2611 AX Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Jules B van Lier
- Environmental Engineering and Water Technology Department, UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education, Westvest 7, 2611 AX Delft, The Netherlands; Faculty of Civil Engineering and Geosciences, Department of Water Management, Sanitary Engineering Section, Delft University of Technology, Stevinweg 1,2628 CN Delft, The Netherlands
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Hijikata N, Tezuka R, Kazama S, Otaki M, Ushijima K, Ito R, Okabe S, Sano D, Funamizu N. Bactericidal and virucidal mechanisms in the alkaline disinfection of compost using calcium lime and ash. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2016; 181:721-727. [PMID: 27562698 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2016.08.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2016] [Revised: 06/21/2016] [Accepted: 08/10/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
In the present study, the bactericidal and virucidal mechanisms in the alkaline disinfection of compost with calcium lime and ash were investigated. Two indicator microorganisms, Escherichia coli and MS2 coliphage, were used as surrogates for enteric pathogens. The alkaline-treated compost with calcium oxide (CaO) or ash resulted primarily in damage to the outer membrane and enzyme activities of E. coli. The alkaline treatment of compost also led to the infectivity loss of the coliphage because of the partial capsid damage and RNA exteriorization due to a raised pH, which is proportional to the amount of alkaline agents added. These results indicate that the alkaline treatment of compost using calcium oxide and ash is effective and can contribute to the safe usage of compost from a mixing type dry toilet.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nowaki Hijikata
- Division of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Hokkaido University, North 13, West 8, Kita-ku, Sapporo, Hokkaido 060-8628, Japan
| | - Rui Tezuka
- Division of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Hokkaido University, North 13, West 8, Kita-ku, Sapporo, Hokkaido 060-8628, Japan
| | - Shinobu Kazama
- New Industry Creation Hatchery Center, Tohoku University, Japan
| | - Masahiro Otaki
- Department of Human Environmental Science, Ochanomizu University, Japan
| | - Ken Ushijima
- Division of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Hokkaido University, North 13, West 8, Kita-ku, Sapporo, Hokkaido 060-8628, Japan
| | - Ryusei Ito
- Division of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Hokkaido University, North 13, West 8, Kita-ku, Sapporo, Hokkaido 060-8628, Japan
| | - Satoshi Okabe
- Division of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Hokkaido University, North 13, West 8, Kita-ku, Sapporo, Hokkaido 060-8628, Japan
| | - Daisuke Sano
- Division of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Hokkaido University, North 13, West 8, Kita-ku, Sapporo, Hokkaido 060-8628, Japan.
| | - Naoyuki Funamizu
- Division of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Hokkaido University, North 13, West 8, Kita-ku, Sapporo, Hokkaido 060-8628, Japan
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Baker KK, Dil Farzana F, Ferdous F, Ahmed S, Kumar Das S, Faruque ASG, Nasrin D, Kotloff KL, Nataro JP, Kolappaswamy K, Levine MM. Association between moderate-to-severe diarrhea in young children in the global enteric multicenter study (GEMS) and types of handwashing materials used by caretakers in Mirzapur, Bangladesh. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2014; 91:181-189. [PMID: 24778193 PMCID: PMC4080560 DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.13-0509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2013] [Accepted: 03/24/2014] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Handwashing practices among caretakers of case and control children < 5 years of age enrolled in the Global Enteric Multicenter Study in Mirzapur, Bangladesh were characterized and analyzed for association with moderate-to-severe diarrhea. Soap or detergent ownership was common, yet 48% of case and 47.7% of control caretakers also kept ashes for handwashing, including 36.8% of the wealthiest households. Soap, detergent, and ash were used for multiple hygiene purposes and were kept together at handwashing areas. Caretakers preferred soap for handwashing, but frequently relied on ash, or a detergent/ash mixture, as a low-cost alternative. Moderate-to-severe diarrhea was equally likely for children of caretakers who kept soap versus those who kept ash (matched OR = 0.91; 0.62-1.32). Contact with ash and water reduced concentrations of bacterial enteropathogens, without mechanical scrubbing. Thus, washing hands with ash is a prevalent behavior in Mirzapur and may help diminish transmission of diarrheal pathogens to children.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelly K. Baker
- Center for Vaccine Development, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland; International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh (icddr,b), Dhaka, Bangladesh; University of Virginia, Pediatrics, Charlottesville, Virginia; Harlan Laboratories Inc., Indianapolis, Indiana
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Inactivation of pathogens in feces by desiccation and urea treatment for application in urine-diverting dry toilets. Appl Environ Microbiol 2013; 79:2156-63. [PMID: 23335764 DOI: 10.1128/aem.03920-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Ecological sanitation technologies can be effective in providing health and environmental pollution control if they can efficiently reduce the pathogenicity of microorganisms carried in fecal material to safe levels. This study evaluated the sanitizing effects of different additives for dry treatment of feces from urine-diverting dry toilets, based on inactivation of Enterococcus faecalis, Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium, bacteriophages MS2 and ΦX, and Ascaris suum. The additives, ash (A) and oyster shell (O) in different amounts and urea (U) to optimize the process, were compared with no additive, solely urea, and sawdust as controls (C) and were covered ([x%O:A]) or uncovered (x%O:A). The main inactivation factors found were desiccation, ammonia content, and pH. S. Typhimurium and E. faecalis were more affected by the ammonia content. A combination of neutral to high pH and desiccation was most effective for inactivation of MS2, and desiccation was most effective for inactivation of ΦX and A. suum. The inactivation rate was modeled for all combinations studied. The most promising treatments were [150%O:A+U], 150%O:A+U, and 150%O:A. According to the models, these could inactivate, for example, 7 log(10) units of all bacteria and bacteriophages within 83, 125, and 183 days, respectively. The inactivation of A. suum was modeled, albeit the measured decay in egg viability was low.
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Katukiza AY, Ronteltap M, Niwagaba CB, Foppen JWA, Kansiime F, Lens PNL. Sustainable sanitation technology options for urban slums. Biotechnol Adv 2012; 30:964-78. [PMID: 22361648 DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2012.02.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2011] [Revised: 12/03/2011] [Accepted: 02/07/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
Poor sanitation in urban slums results in increased prevalence of diseases and pollution of the environment. Excreta, grey water and solid wastes are the major contributors to the pollution load into the slum environment and pose a risk to public health. The high rates of urbanization and population growth, poor accessibility and lack of legal status in urban slums make it difficult to improve their level of sanitation. New approaches may help to achieve the sanitation target of the Millennium Development Goal (MDG) 7; ensuring environmental sustainability. This paper reviews the characteristics of waste streams and the potential treatment processes and technologies that can be adopted and applied in urban slums in a sustainable way. Resource recovery oriented technologies minimise health risks and negative environmental impacts. In particular, there has been increasing recognition of the potential of anaerobic co-digestion for treatment of excreta and organic solid waste for energy recovery as an alternative to composting. Soil and sand filters have also been found suitable for removal of organic matter, pathogens, nutrients and micro-pollutants from grey water.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Y Katukiza
- Department of Environmental Engineering and Water Technology, UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education, Delft, The Netherlands.
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Katukiza AY, Ronteltap M, Oleja A, Niwagaba CB, Kansiime F, Lens PNL. Selection of sustainable sanitation technologies for urban slums--a case of Bwaise III in Kampala, Uganda. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2010; 409:52-62. [PMID: 20943256 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2010.09.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2010] [Revised: 09/08/2010] [Accepted: 09/18/2010] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Provision of sanitation solutions in the world's urban slums is extremely challenging due to lack of money, space, access and sense of ownership. This paper presents a technology selection method that was used for the selection of appropriate sanitation solutions for urban slums. The method used in this paper takes into account sustainability criteria, including social acceptance, technological and physical applicability, economical and institutional aspects, and the need to protect and promote human health and the environment. The study was carried out in Bwaise III; a slum area in Kampala (Uganda). This was through administering of questionnaires and focus group discussions to obtain baseline data, developing a database to compare different sanitation options using technology selection criteria and then performing a multi-criteria analysis of the technology options. It was found that 15% of the population uses a public pit latrine; 75% uses a shared toilet; and 10% has private, non-shared sanitation facilities. Using the selection method, technologies such as Urine Diversion Dry Toilet (UDDT) and biogas latrines were identified to be potentially feasible sanitation solutions for Bwaise III. Sanitation challenges for further research are also presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Y Katukiza
- Department of Environmental Resources, UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education P.O. BOX 3015, 2601 DA Delft, The Netherlands.
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