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Sustainable synthesis of metal-organic frameworks and their derived materials from organic and inorganic wastes. Coord Chem Rev 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ccr.2022.214986] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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2
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Hansen SF, Arvidsson R, Nielsen MB, Hansen OFH, Clausen LPW, Baun A, Boldrin A. Nanotechnology meets circular economy. NATURE NANOTECHNOLOGY 2022; 17:682-685. [PMID: 35773426 DOI: 10.1038/s41565-022-01157-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Steffen Foss Hansen
- Department of Environmental and Resource Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark.
| | - Rickard Arvidsson
- Division of Environmental Systems Analysis, Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Maria Bille Nielsen
- Department of Environmental and Resource Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Oliver Foss Hessner Hansen
- Department of Environmental and Resource Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | | | - Anders Baun
- Department of Environmental and Resource Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Alessio Boldrin
- Department of Environmental and Resource Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
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De A. Nanomaterial Synthesis from End‐of‐Cycle Products: A Sustainable Way of Waste Valorisation. CHEMBIOENG REVIEWS 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/cben.202100048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Anindita De
- Sharda University Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry School of Basic Sciences and Research 201306 Greater Noida India
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Brar KK, Magdouli S, Othmani A, Ghanei J, Narisetty V, Sindhu R, Binod P, Pugazhendhi A, Awasthi MK, Pandey A. Green route for recycling of low-cost waste resources for the biosynthesis of nanoparticles (NPs) and nanomaterials (NMs)-A review. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2022; 207:112202. [PMID: 34655607 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2021.112202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2021] [Revised: 09/02/2021] [Accepted: 10/06/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Nowadays, nanoparticles (NPs) and nanomaterials (NMs) are used extensively in various streams such as medical science, solar energy, drug delivery, water treatment, and detection of persistent pollutants. Intensive synthesis of NPs/NMs carried out via physico-chemical technologies is deteriorating the environment globally. Therefore, an urgent need to adopt cost-effective and green technologies to synthesize NPs/NMs by recycling of secondary waste resources is highly required. Environmental wastes such as metallurgical slag, electronics (e-waste), and acid mine drainage (AMD) are rich sources of metals to produce NPs. This concept can remediate the environment on the one hand and the other hand, it can provide a future roadmap for economic benefits at industrial scale operations. The waste-derived NPs will reduce the industrial consumption of limited primary resources. In this review article, green emerging technologies involving lignocellulosic waste to synthesize the NPs from the waste streams and the role of potential microorganisms such as microalgae, fungi, yeast, bacteria for the synthesis of NPs have been discussed. A critical insight is also given on use of recycling technologies and the incorporation of NMs in the membrane bioreactors (MBRs) to improve membrane functioning and process performance. Finally, this study aims to mitigate various persisting scientific and technological challenges for the safe disposal and recycling of organic and inorganic waste for future use in the circular economy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kamalpreet Kaur Brar
- Department of Civil Engineering, Lassonde School of Engineering, York University, North York, Toronto, Ontario, M3J 1P3, Canada; Centre Technologique des Résidus Industriels en Abitibi Témiscamingue, J9X0E1, Canada
| | - Sara Magdouli
- Department of Civil Engineering, Lassonde School of Engineering, York University, North York, Toronto, Ontario, M3J 1P3, Canada; Centre Technologique des Résidus Industriels en Abitibi Témiscamingue, J9X0E1, Canada
| | - Amina Othmani
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences of Monastir, University of Monastir, 5019, Monastir, Tunisia
| | - Javad Ghanei
- Department of Civil Engineering, Lassonde School of Engineering, York University, North York, Toronto, Ontario, M3J 1P3, Canada; Centre Technologique des Résidus Industriels en Abitibi Témiscamingue, J9X0E1, Canada
| | - Vivek Narisetty
- Centre for Climate and Environmental Protection, School of Water, Energy and Environment, Cranfield University, Cranfield, MK43 0AL, UK
| | - Raveendran Sindhu
- Microbial Processes and Technology Division, CSIR-National Institute for Interdisciplinary Science and Technology, Trivandrum, 695 019, Kerala, India
| | - Parameswaran Binod
- Microbial Processes and Technology Division, CSIR-National Institute for Interdisciplinary Science and Technology, Trivandrum, 695 019, Kerala, India
| | - Arivalagan Pugazhendhi
- School of Renewable Energy, Maejo University, Chiang Mai, 50290, Thailand; College of Medical and Health Science, Asia University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Mukesh Kumar Awasthi
- College of Natural Resources and Environment, Northwest A & F University, Yangling, Shaanxi, 712 100, China
| | - Ashok Pandey
- Centre for Innovation and Translational Research CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research, Lucknow, 226 001, India; Centre for Energy and Environmental Sustainability, Lucknow, 226 0019, India.
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5
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Sustainable Syntheses and Sources of Nanomaterials for Microbial Fuel/Electrolysis Cell Applications: An Overview of Recent Progress. Processes (Basel) 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/pr9071221] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
The use of microbial fuel cells (MFCs) is quickly spreading in the fields of bioenergy generation and wastewater treatment, as well as in the biosynthesis of valuable compounds for microbial electrolysis cells (MECs). MFCs and MECs have not been able to penetrate the market as economic feasibility is lost when their performances are boosted by nanomaterials. The nanoparticles used to realize or decorate the components (electrodes or the membrane) have expensive processing, purification, and raw resource costs. In recent decades, many studies have approached the problem of finding green synthesis routes and cheap sources for the most common nanoparticles employed in MFCs and MECs. These nanoparticles are essentially made of carbon, noble metals, and non-noble metals, together with a few other few doping elements. In this review, the most recent findings regarding the sustainable preparation of nanoparticles, in terms of syntheses and sources, are collected, commented, and proposed for applications in MFC and MEC devices. The use of naturally occurring, recycled, and alternative raw materials for nanoparticle synthesis is showcased in detail here. Several examples of how these naturally derived or sustainable nanoparticles have been employed in microbial devices are also examined. The results demonstrate that this approach is valuable and could represent a solid alternative to the expensive use of commercial nanoparticles.
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Jagodzińska K, Yang W, Jönsson PG, Forsgren C. Can torrefaction be a suitable method of enhancing shredder fines recycling? WASTE MANAGEMENT (NEW YORK, N.Y.) 2021; 128:211-220. [PMID: 34000691 DOI: 10.1016/j.wasman.2021.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2021] [Revised: 04/26/2021] [Accepted: 05/02/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Effective recycling of metallic waste and end-of-life vehicles (ELVs) is of crucial importance. Currently used separation and sorting techniques result in the formation of fine residue (usually below 10-20 mm) called shredder fines. Shredder fines contain the so-called 'fluff' (i.e., foam, wood and textile fibres) with metal particles entangled in it. This 'fluff' interferes with sorting techniques and thus reduces the metal recycling rate. For this reason, presently, shredder fines are primarily landfilled, which is not covered by the greater objective of the circular economy; therefore, the need for their recycling emerged. Low-temperature pyrolysis (torrefaction) increases the 'fluff' fragility and thus liberates the metal particles without their substantial oxidation, thereby enabling their recycling. For that reason, in this article, shredder fines torrefaction was performed at the temperature range of 250-450 °C. The process products were comprehensively characterised using, among others, MicroGC (non-condensables), GC/MS (condensables), and ICP-SFMS (char). The possible application of the torrefied shredder fines after the metal sorting was discussed as well. Torrefaction was identified as a promising way of shredder fines recycling, and the torrefied shredder fines after metals sorting have the potential to be used as an ingredient of a raw material mix for cement kilns.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katarzyna Jagodzińska
- KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Brinellvägen 23, Stockholm, Sweden.
| | - Weihong Yang
- KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Brinellvägen 23, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Pär Göran Jönsson
- KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Brinellvägen 23, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Christer Forsgren
- Stena Recycling International AB, Fiskhamnsgatan 8B, Göteborg, Sweden
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Abdelbasir SM, McCourt KM, Lee CM, Vanegas DC. Waste-Derived Nanoparticles: Synthesis Approaches, Environmental Applications, and Sustainability Considerations. Front Chem 2020; 8:782. [PMID: 33110911 PMCID: PMC7488813 DOI: 10.3389/fchem.2020.00782] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2020] [Accepted: 07/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
For the past few decades, a plethora of nanoparticles have been produced through various methods and utilized to advance technologies for environmental applications, including water treatment, detection of persistent pollutants, and soil/water remediation, amongst many others. The field of materials science and engineering is increasingly interested in increasing the sustainability of the processes involved in the production of nanoparticles, which motivates the exploration of alternative inputs for nanoparticle production as well as the implementation of green synthesis techniques. Herein, we start by overviewing the general aspects of nanoparticle synthesis from industrial, electric/electronic, and plastic waste. We expand on critical aspects of waste identification as a viable input for the treatment and recovery of metal- and carbon-based nanoparticles. We follow-up by discussing different governing mechanisms involved in the production of nanoparticles, and point to potential inferences throughout the synthesis processes. Next, we provide some examples of waste-derived nanoparticles utilized in a proof-of-concept demonstration of technologies for applications in water quality and safety. We conclude by discussing current challenges from the toxicological and life-cycle perspectives that must be taken into consideration before scale-up manufacturing and implementation of waste-derived nanoparticles.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Kelli M. McCourt
- Department of Environmental Engineering and Earth Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, United States
| | - Cindy M. Lee
- Department of Environmental Engineering and Earth Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, United States
- Department of Engineering and Science Education, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, United States
| | - Diana C. Vanegas
- Department of Environmental Engineering and Earth Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, United States
- Interdisciplinary Group for Biotechnological Innovation and Ecosocial Change-BioNovo, Universidad del Valle, Cali, Colombia
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Mancini G, Luciano A, Viotti P, Fino D. Evaluation of automotive shredder residues (ASR) landfill behavior through lysimetric and traditional leaching tests. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2020; 27:13360-13369. [PMID: 32016878 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-020-07788-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2018] [Accepted: 01/21/2020] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
With regards to European waste catalog, automotive shredder residues (ASR) can be classified both as a hazardous or non-hazardous waste according to its hazardous properties (H1-H14). It is thus important to carry out an adequate chemical-physical characterization to identify the presence and concentration of those substances able to give, to this extremely heterogeneous material, the hazardousness character of. The issue of waste characterization, to identify the proper site for appropriate waste disposal, is based, according to the relevant laws, to the use of leaching tests. The analysis of the potential effects of landfilled waste in laboratory, however, run into several difficulties in reproducing phenomena depending both on the characteristics of small, heterogeneous quantity of waste and on the local boundary conditions. These difficulties are much more significant as the waste is heterogeneous at the small scale of the laboratory. This is one of the main problems often leading to scattered results even when starting from the same waste parcel. Present research aimed to overcome the above-mentioned difficulties deriving from waste heterogeneity and was based on a lysimetric simulation. Experimentation with lysimeter has shown it effectiveness in the comparison between leachate from the lysimeter and an ASR landfill leachate, from which similar distribution of metal mass ratios, close values for both BOD5 and COD, as well as the absence in both the fluids of organochlorinated compounds, emerge.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giuseppe Mancini
- Department of Electrıcal Electronıc and Computer Engıneerıng, University of Catania, Viale Andrea Doria 6, I 95125, Catania, Italy.
| | - Antonella Luciano
- Department for Sustainability, ENEA-Italian National Agency for the New Technologies, Energy and Sustainable Economic Development-Casaccia Research Centre, Via Anguillarese 301, I 00123, Rome, Italy
| | - Paolo Viotti
- Department of Civil, Construction and Environmental Engineering (DICEA), Sapienza University of Rome, Via Eudossiana 18, I-00184, Rome, Italy
| | - Debora Fino
- Department of Applied Science and Technology (DISAT), Polytechnic of Turin, 10129, Turin, Italy
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Xue Y, Zheng S, Sun Z, Zhang Y, Jin W. Alkaline electrochemical advanced oxidation process for chromium oxidation at graphitized multi-walled carbon nanotubes. CHEMOSPHERE 2017; 183:156-163. [PMID: 28544901 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2017.05.115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2017] [Revised: 05/18/2017] [Accepted: 05/19/2017] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
Alkaline electrochemical advanced oxidation processes for chromium oxidation and Cr-contaminated waste disposal were reported in this study. The highly graphitized multi-walled carbon nanotubes g-MWCNTs modified electrode was prepared for the in-situ electrochemical generation of HO2-. RRDE test results illustrated that g-MWCNTs exhibited much higher two-electron oxygen reduction activity than other nanocarbon materials with peak current density of 1.24 mA cm-2, %HO2- of 77.0% and onset potential of -0.15 V (vs. Hg/HgO). It was originated from the highly graphitized structure and good electrical conductivity as illustrated from the Raman, XRD and EIS characterizations, respectively. Large amount of reactive oxygen species (HO2- and ·OH) were in-situ electro-generated from the two-electron oxygen reduction and chromium-induced alkaline electro-Fenton-like reaction. The oxidation of Cr(III) was efficiently achieved within 90 min and the conversion ratio maintained more than 95% of the original value after stability test, offering an efficient and green approach for the utilization of Cr-containing wastes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yudong Xue
- National Engineering Laboratory for Hydrometallurgical Cleaner Production Technology, Key Laboratory of Green Process and Engineering, Institute of Process Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Shili Zheng
- National Engineering Laboratory for Hydrometallurgical Cleaner Production Technology, Key Laboratory of Green Process and Engineering, Institute of Process Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
| | - Zhi Sun
- National Engineering Laboratory for Hydrometallurgical Cleaner Production Technology, Key Laboratory of Green Process and Engineering, Institute of Process Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
| | - Yi Zhang
- National Engineering Laboratory for Hydrometallurgical Cleaner Production Technology, Key Laboratory of Green Process and Engineering, Institute of Process Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
| | - Wei Jin
- National Engineering Laboratory for Hydrometallurgical Cleaner Production Technology, Key Laboratory of Green Process and Engineering, Institute of Process Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China.
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10
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Potential degradation of hazardous dye Congo red by nano-metallic particles synthesized from the automobile shredder residue. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/s41204-017-0021-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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11
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Zhou Y, Zhu N, Kang N, Cao Y, Shi C, Wu P, Dang Z, Zhang X, Qin B. Layer-by-layer assembly surface modified microbial biomass for enhancing biorecovery of secondary gold. WASTE MANAGEMENT (NEW YORK, N.Y.) 2017; 60:552-560. [PMID: 28024894 DOI: 10.1016/j.wasman.2016.12.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2016] [Revised: 11/23/2016] [Accepted: 12/11/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Enhancement of the biosorption capacity for gold is highly desirable for the biorecovery of secondary gold resources. In this study, polyethylenimine (PEI) was grafted on Shewanella haliotis surface through layer-by-layer assembly approach so as to improve the biosorption capacity of Au(III). Results showed that the relative contribution of amino group to the biosorption of Au(III) was the largest one (about 44%). After successful grafting 1, 2 and 3-layer PEI on the surface of biomass, the biosorption capacity significantly enhanced from 143.8mg/g to 597.1, 559.1, and 536.8mg/g, respectively. Interestingly, the biomass modified with 1-layer PEI exhibited 4.2 times higher biosorption capacity than the untreated control. When 1-layer modified biomass was subjected to optimizing the various conditions by response surface methodology, the theoretical maximum adsorption capacity could reach up to 727.3mg/g. All findings demonstrated that PEI modified S. haliotis was effective for enhancing gold biorecovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Zhou
- School of Environment and Energy, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, PR China
| | - Nengwu Zhu
- School of Environment and Energy, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, PR China; The Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Ecosystem Restoration in Industry Clusters of Ministry of Education, Guangzhou 510006, PR China; Guangdong Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Solid Waste Treatment and Recycling, Guangzhou 510006, PR China; Guangdong Provincial Engineering and Technology Research Center for Environmental Risk Prevention and Emergency Disposal, Guangzhou 510006, PR China.
| | - Naixin Kang
- School of Environment and Energy, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, PR China
| | - Yanlan Cao
- School of Environment and Energy, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, PR China
| | - Chaohong Shi
- School of Environment and Energy, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, PR China
| | - Pingxiao Wu
- School of Environment and Energy, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, PR China; The Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Ecosystem Restoration in Industry Clusters of Ministry of Education, Guangzhou 510006, PR China; Guangdong Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Solid Waste Treatment and Recycling, Guangzhou 510006, PR China; Guangdong Provincial Engineering and Technology Research Center for Environmental Risk Prevention and Emergency Disposal, Guangzhou 510006, PR China
| | - Zhi Dang
- School of Environment and Energy, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, PR China; The Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Ecosystem Restoration in Industry Clusters of Ministry of Education, Guangzhou 510006, PR China; Guangdong Provincial Engineering and Technology Research Center for Environmental Risk Prevention and Emergency Disposal, Guangzhou 510006, PR China
| | - Xiaoping Zhang
- School of Environment and Energy, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, PR China; The Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Ecosystem Restoration in Industry Clusters of Ministry of Education, Guangzhou 510006, PR China; Guangdong Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Solid Waste Treatment and Recycling, Guangzhou 510006, PR China; Guangdong Provincial Engineering and Technology Research Center for Environmental Risk Prevention and Emergency Disposal, Guangzhou 510006, PR China.
| | - Benqian Qin
- School of Environment and Energy, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, PR China
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Singh J, Yang JK, Chang YY. Rapid degradation of phenol by ultrasound-dispersed nano-metallic particles (NMPs) in the presence of hydrogen peroxide: A possible mechanism for phenol degradation in water. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2016; 175:60-66. [PMID: 27038433 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2016.03.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2016] [Revised: 03/10/2016] [Accepted: 03/15/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
The present study was carried out to investigate the degradation of phenol by ultrasonically dispersed nano-metallic particles (NMPs) in an aqueous solution of phenol. Leaching liquor from automobile shredder residue (ASR) was used to obtain the NMPs. The prepared NMPs were analyzed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and by X-ray diffraction (XRD). The SEM images show that the diameters of the NMPs were less than 50 nm. An SEM-EDX elemental analysis reveals that Fe was the most commonly found element (weight %) in the NMPs. The FTIR and XRD peaks indicate the presence of metals oxides on the surfaces of the NMPs. The results of the XPS analysis indicate that various elements (e.g., C, O, Zn, Cu, Mn, Fe) are present on the surfaces of the NMPs. The effects of the NMP dose, the initial solution pH, and of different concentrations of phenol and H2O2 on the phenol degradation characteristics were evaluated. The results of this study demonstrate that phenol degradation can be improved by increasing the amount of NMPs, whereas it is reduced with an increase in the phenol concentration. The degradation of phenol by ultrasonically dispersed NMPs followed the pseudo-first-order kinetics. The probable mechanism of phenol degradation by ultrasonically dispersed NMPs was the oxidation of phenol caused by the hydroxyl radicals produced during the reaction between H2O2 and the NMPs during the ultrasonication process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiwan Singh
- Department of Environmental Engineering, Kwangwoon University, Seoul 139-701, Republic of Korea.
| | - Jae-Kyu Yang
- Division of General Education, Kwangwoon University, Seoul 139-701, Republic of Korea
| | - Yoon-Young Chang
- Department of Environmental Engineering, Kwangwoon University, Seoul 139-701, Republic of Korea.
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