Use of salinity mixing models to estimate the contribution of creek water fecal indicator bacteria to an estuarine environment: Newport Bay, California

Natural attenuation of indicator bacteria in coastal streams and estuarine environments

One of the most significant causes of poor water quality is the presence of pathogens. To reduce the cost of human exposure to microbial contamination, monitoring of Fecal Indicator Bacteria (FIB), as a surrogate for the presence of pathogens in natural waters, has become the norm. A total maximum daily load (TMDL) framework is used to establish limits for microbial concentrations in impaired waterbodies. In order to meet microbial loads determined by the TMDLs, reductions in microbial sources varying from 50% to almost complete elimination are required. Such targets are fairly difficult, if not impossible, to achieve. A natural attenuation (NA) framework is proposed that takes into account the connectivity between freshwater streams and their receiving coastal estuaries. The framework accounts for destructive and non-destructive mechanisms and defines three regimes: NA 1 - reaction-dilution mixing at the freshwater-tidal interface, NA 2 - advection-reactions within the tidally influenced coastal stream, and NA 3 - dilution-discharge at the interface with the estuary. The framework was illustrated using the Houston Metropolitan area freshwater streams, their discharge into the Houston Ship Channel (HSC) and into Galveston Bay. FIB concentrations in Galveston Bay were much lower when compared to FIB concentrations in Houston streams. Lower enterococci concentrations in tributary tidal waters were found compared to their counterparts in fresh waters (NA1 regime). Additionally, 70% reduction in FIB loads within the HSC was demonstrated as well as a decreasing trend in enterococci geometric means, from upstream to downstream, on the order of 0.092 day^-1 (NA2 regime). Lower enterococci concentrations in Galveston Bay at the confluence with the HSC were also demonstrated (NA3 regime). Statistical testing showed that dilution, tide-associated processes, and salinity are the most important NA mechanisms and indicated the significant effect of ambient temperature and rainfall patterns on FIB concentrations and the NA mechanisms.

Spatial and temporal microbial pollution patterns in a tropical estuary during high and low river flow conditions

Spatial and temporal patterns of coastal microbial pollution are not well documented. Our study examined these patterns through measurements of fecal indicator bacteria (FIB), nutrients, and physiochemical parameters in Hilo Bay, Hawai'i, during high and low river flow. >40% of samples tested positive for the human-associated Bacteroides marker, with highest percentages near rivers. Other FIB were also higher near rivers, but only Clostridium perfringens concentrations were related to discharge. During storms, FIB concentrations were three times to an order of magnitude higher, and increased with decreasing salinity and water temperature, and increasing turbidity. These relationships and high spatial resolution data for these parameters were used to create Enterococcus spp. and C. perfringens maps that predicted exceedances with 64% and 95% accuracy, respectively. Mapping microbial pollution patterns and predicting exceedances is a valuable tool that can improve water quality monitoring and aid in visualizing FIB hotspots for management actions.

Geographic information systems and multivariate analysis to evaluate fecal bacterial pollution in coastal waters of Andaman, India

Urbanization of coastal areas in recent years has driven us to consider a new approach for visually delineating sites that are contaminated with fecal bacteria (FB) in the coastal waters of the Andaman Islands in India. Geo-spatial analysis demarcated harbor, settlement, and freshwater/discharge influenced zones as hot spots for FB, while the open sea was demarcated as a cold spot. The land use types, such as developed and agriculture, with more anthropogenic activities increasing the FB counts while open sea showed the least FB. Box whisker plot indicated an increasing FB trend in the coastal waters during monsoon. Furthermore, principal component analysis revealed 67.35%, 78.62% and 70.43% of total variance at Port Blair, Rangat and Aerial bays, respectively. Strong factor loading was observed for depth (0.95), transparency (0.93), dissolved oxygen (0.93) and fecal streptococci (0.85). Distance proximity analysis revealed that fecal contaminations diluted significantly (P < 0.05) at the distance of 2.1 km toward the deeper or open sea water. This study demonstrates the effectiveness of an integrated approach in identifying the sources of fecal contamination and thus helping in better monitoring and management of coastal waters.

Salt Plug Formation Caused by Decreased River Discharge in a Multi-channel Estuary

Freshwater input to estuaries may be greatly altered by the river barrages required to meet human needs for drinking water and irrigation and prevent salt water intrusion. Prior studies have examined the salt plugs associated with evaporation and salt outwelling from tidal salt flats in single-channel estuaries. In this work, we discovered a new type of salt plug formation in the multi-channel Pasur River Estuary (PRE) caused by decreasing river discharges resulting from an upstream barrage. The formation of a salt plug in response to changes in river discharge was investigated using a conductivity-temperature-depth (CTD) recorder during spring and neap tides in the dry and wet seasons in 2014. An exportation of saline water from the Shibsa River Estuary (SRE) to the PRE through the Chunkhuri Channel occurred during the dry season, and a salt plug was created and persisted from December to June near Chalna in the PRE. A discharge-induced, relatively high water level in the PRE during the wet season exerted hydrostatic pressure towards the SRE from the PRE and thereby prevented the intrusion of salt water from the SRE to the PRE.

Using EMMA and MIX analysis to assess mixing ratios and to identify hydrochemical reactions in groundwater

This study presents a methodology using an end-member mixing analysis (EMMA) and MIX to compute mixing ratios and to identify hydrochemical reactions in groundwater. The methodology consists of (1) identifying the potential sources of recharge, (2) characterising recharge sources and mixed water samples using hydrogeochemistry, (3) selecting chemical species to be used in the analysis and (4) calculating mixing ratios and identification of hydrochemical reactions in groundwater. This approach has been applied in the Besòs River Delta area, where we have collected 51 groundwater samples and a long data register of the hydrogeochemistry of the Besòs River created by the Catalan Water Agency is also available. The EMMA performed in the Besòs River suggests that 3 end-members are required to explain its temporal variability, accounting for the species chloride, sulphate, sodium, bicarbonate, calcium, magnesium, potassium, ammonium, total nitrogen, and electrical conductivity. One river end-member is from the wet periods (W1), and two are from dry periods (D1 and D2). These end-members have been used to compute mixing ratios in groundwater samples because the Besòs River is considered the main recharge source for the aquifer. Overall, dry season end-members dominated over the wet season end-member, in a proportion of 4:1. Moreover, when departures from the mixing line exist, geochemical processes might be identified. Redox processes, carbonate dissolution/precipitation and ion exchange processes may occur in Besòs Delta aquifer.

Size distribution and settling velocities of suspended particles in a tidal embayment

Field studies were carried out to investigate seasonal and bay-wide variations in the particle size distributions (PSDs) and settling velocities of suspended particles in Newport Bay, the second largest tidal embayment in southern California. Maximum Entropy Classification (MEC) of the data identified three PSD groups: (1) suspended particles with a single mode around 10-20 μm (Group 1), (2) suspended particles with a single mode similar to Group 1, but shifted to smaller particle sizes (Group 2), and (3) suspended particles with a coarse mode at around 100 μm (Group 3). The three PSD groups have distinct seasonal and spatial patterns, and different size-settling velocity relationships, consistent with the hypothesis that Newport Bay longitudinally fractionates allochthonous particles from its tributaries by both size and settling velocity, and generates large and fast settling autochthonous particles, probably in the form of biological debris. Particle concentrations in Groups 1 and 2 are significantly correlated with fecal indicator bacteria, suggesting possible linkages between fecal pollution and particle transfer in this tidal embayment.

Unusual salinity conditions in the Yangtze estuary in 2006: impacts of an extreme drought or of the Three Gorges Dam?

During the extreme dry year of 2006, abnormal salinity conditions in the Changjiang Estuary of the Yangtze River occurred in partial coincidence with the second impoundment phase of the TGD (Three Gorges Dam). Analysis of discharge observations in the upper reaches of the estuary and of salinity observations in the estuary as a whole reveals that in 2006 salinity was over 100 mg/l during 275 days, over 250 mg/l during 75 days and over 400 mg/l during 48 days. It is well known that this is due to extreme low discharges from the upper catchment area into the estuary. Moreover, large amounts of water consumed along the lower reaches of the Yangtze River can also aggravate the low discharges that lead to stronger saltwater intrusion in the estuary. Of the 75 days that salinity was over 250 mg/l, the low discharge was decreased further by 10 to 20% due to water consumption. The additional impact of the impoundment phase of the TGD (lasting 37 days in autumn) was noticeable only during 7 days in 2006. During that period, the relative contributions of the TGD and the water consumption in the lower reaches of the Yangtze River amounted to 70 and 30%, respectively. It may be concluded that the impact of the second impoundment phase of the TGD on salinity intrusion in the estuary was modest, while the extreme drought of 2006 was the dominant cause.