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Zhang C, Zhao G, Jiao Y, Quan B, Lu W, Su P, Tang Y, Wang J, Wu M, Xiao N, Zhang Y, Tong J. Critical analysis on the transformation and upgrading strategy of Chinese municipal wastewater treatment plants: Towards sustainable water remediation and zero carbon emissions. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 896:165201. [PMID: 37406711 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.165201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2023] [Revised: 06/13/2023] [Accepted: 06/27/2023] [Indexed: 07/07/2023]
Abstract
In the light of circular economy aspects, processing of large-scale municipal wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) needs reconsideration to limit the overuse of energy, implement of non-green technologies and emit abundant greenhouse gas. Along with the huge increase in the worldwide population and agro-industrial activities, global environmental organizations have issued several recent roles to boost scientific and industrial communities towards sustainable development. Over recent years, China has imposed national and regional standards to control and manage the discharged liquid and solid waste, as well as to achieve carbon peaking and carbon neutrality. The aim of this report is to analyze the current state of Chinese WWTPs routing and related issues such as climate change and air pollution. The used strategies in Chinese WWTPs and upgrading trends were critically discussed. Several points were addressed including the performance, environmental impact, and energy demand of bio-enhanced technologies, including hydrolytic acidification pretreatment, efficient (toxic) strain treatment, and anaerobic ammonia oxidation denitrification technology, as well as advanced treatment technologies composed of physical and chemical treatment technologies, biological treatment technology and combined treatment technology. Discussion and critical analysis based on the current data and national policies were provided and employed to develop the future development trend of municipal WWTPs in China from the construction of sustainable and "Zero carbon" WWTPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chunhui Zhang
- College of Chemistry and Environmental Engineering, China University of Mining and Technology-Beijing, Beijing 100083, China.
| | - Guifeng Zhao
- College of Chemistry and Environmental Engineering, China University of Mining and Technology-Beijing, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Yanan Jiao
- College of Chemistry and Environmental Engineering, China University of Mining and Technology-Beijing, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Bingxu Quan
- College of Chemistry and Environmental Engineering, China University of Mining and Technology-Beijing, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Wenjing Lu
- College of Chemistry and Environmental Engineering, China University of Mining and Technology-Beijing, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Peidong Su
- College of Chemistry and Environmental Engineering, China University of Mining and Technology-Beijing, Beijing 100083, China.
| | - Yuanhui Tang
- College of Chemistry and Environmental Engineering, China University of Mining and Technology-Beijing, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Jianbing Wang
- College of Chemistry and Environmental Engineering, China University of Mining and Technology-Beijing, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Mengmeng Wu
- Zhongguancun Summit Enviro-Protection Co., Ltd., Beijing 100081, China
| | - Nan Xiao
- Zhongguancun Summit Enviro-Protection Co., Ltd., Beijing 100081, China
| | - Yizhen Zhang
- Zhongguancun Summit Enviro-Protection Co., Ltd., Beijing 100081, China
| | - Jinghua Tong
- Zhongguancun Summit Enviro-Protection Co., Ltd., Beijing 100081, China
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Zhao Q, Ying H, Liu Y, Wang H, Xu J, Wang W, Ren J, Meng S, Wang N, Mu R, Wang S, Li J. Towards low energy-carbon footprint: Current versus potential P recovery paths in domestic wastewater treatment plants. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2023; 344:118653. [PMID: 37478716 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2023.118653] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2023] [Revised: 07/11/2023] [Accepted: 07/15/2023] [Indexed: 07/23/2023]
Abstract
With the unprecedented exhaustion of natural phosphorus (P) resource and the high eutrophication potential of the associated-P discharge, P recovery from the domestic wastewater is a promising way and has been putting on agenda of wastewater industry. To address the concern of P resource recovery in an environmentally sustainable way is indispensable especially in the carbon neutrality-oriented wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). Therefore, this review aims to offer a critical view and a holistic analysis of different P removal/recovery process in current WWTPs and more P reclaim options with the focus on the energy consumption and greenhouse gas (GHG) emission. Unlike P mostly flowing out in the planned/semi-planned P removal/recovery process in current WWTPs, P could be maximumly sequestered via the A-2B- centered process, direct reuse of P-bearing permeate from anaerobic membrane bioreactor, nano-adsorption combined with anaerobic membrane and electrochemical P recovery process. The A-2B- centered process, in which the anaerobic fixed bed reactor was designated for COD capture for energy efficiency while P was enriched and recovered with further P crystallization treating, exhibited the lowest specific energy consumption and GHG emission on the basis of P mass recovered. P resource management in WWTPs tends to incorporate issues related to environmental protection, energy efficiency, GHG emission and socio-economic benefits. This review offers a holistic view with regard to the paradigm shift from "simple P removal" to "P reuse/recovery" and offers in-depth insights into the possible directions towards the P-recovery in the "water-energy-resource-GHG nexus" plant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qian Zhao
- School of Municipal and Environmental Engineering, Shandong Jianzhu University, 1000 Fengming Road, Jinan, 250101, China; Research Institute of Resources and Environmental Innovation, Shandong Jianzhu University, Jinan, 250101, China; Research Center for Urban Sewage Treatment and Resource Engineering Technology of Shandong Province, Jinan, 250101, China
| | - Hao Ying
- School of Municipal and Environmental Engineering, Shandong Jianzhu University, 1000 Fengming Road, Jinan, 250101, China
| | - Yu Liu
- Advanced Environmental Biotechnology Centre, Nanyang Environment and Water Research Institute, Nanyang Technological University, 1 Cleantech Loop, Singapore, 637141, Singapore; School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue, Singapore, 639798, Singapore.
| | - Hongbo Wang
- School of Municipal and Environmental Engineering, Shandong Jianzhu University, 1000 Fengming Road, Jinan, 250101, China; Research Institute of Resources and Environmental Innovation, Shandong Jianzhu University, Jinan, 250101, China; Research Center for Urban Sewage Treatment and Resource Engineering Technology of Shandong Province, Jinan, 250101, China.
| | - Jingtao Xu
- School of Municipal and Environmental Engineering, Shandong Jianzhu University, 1000 Fengming Road, Jinan, 250101, China; Research Institute of Resources and Environmental Innovation, Shandong Jianzhu University, Jinan, 250101, China; Research Center for Urban Sewage Treatment and Resource Engineering Technology of Shandong Province, Jinan, 250101, China
| | - Wei Wang
- Shandong Institute of Geological Sciences, Jinan, 250013, Shandong, China; Key Laboratory of Gold Mineralization Processes and Resources Utilization and Key Laboratory of Metallogenic-Geologic Processes and Comprehensive Utilization of Minerals Resources in Shandong Province, Jinan, 250013, China
| | - Juan Ren
- Jinan Urban Planning and Design Institute, Jinan, 250001, China
| | - Shujuan Meng
- School of Space and Environment, Beihang University, Beijing, 100191, China
| | - Ning Wang
- School of Municipal and Environmental Engineering, Shandong Jianzhu University, 1000 Fengming Road, Jinan, 250101, China; Research Institute of Resources and Environmental Innovation, Shandong Jianzhu University, Jinan, 250101, China; Research Center for Urban Sewage Treatment and Resource Engineering Technology of Shandong Province, Jinan, 250101, China
| | - Ruimin Mu
- School of Municipal and Environmental Engineering, Shandong Jianzhu University, 1000 Fengming Road, Jinan, 250101, China; Research Institute of Resources and Environmental Innovation, Shandong Jianzhu University, Jinan, 250101, China
| | - Shasha Wang
- Shandong Survey and Design Institute of Water Conservancy Co. LTD, Jinan, 250013, China
| | - Jingjing Li
- School of Municipal and Environmental Engineering, Shandong Jianzhu University, 1000 Fengming Road, Jinan, 250101, China; Research Institute of Resources and Environmental Innovation, Shandong Jianzhu University, Jinan, 250101, China; Research Center for Urban Sewage Treatment and Resource Engineering Technology of Shandong Province, Jinan, 250101, China
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Cui M, Gu W, Yang X, Li D, Zhang L, Yang N, Wang X, Zhan G. Microbial electrochemical driven anaerobic ammonium oxidation coupling to denitrification in a single-chamber stainless steel reactor for simultaneous nitrogen and carbon removal. Bioelectrochemistry 2022; 145:108097. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bioelechem.2022.108097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2022] [Revised: 02/20/2022] [Accepted: 03/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
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Zhao Q, Tian J, Zhang K, Wang H, Li M, Meng S, Mu R, Liu L, Yin M, Li J, Liu Y. Phosphate recovery from the P-enriched brine of AnMBR-RO-IE treating municipal wastewater via an innovated phosphorus recovery batch reactor with nano-sorbents. CHEMOSPHERE 2021; 284:131259. [PMID: 34192664 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.131259] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2020] [Revised: 05/17/2021] [Accepted: 06/15/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Municipal wastewater is a very unique pool full of energy and useful substances. Though the innovative integrated anaerobic membrane bioreactor and reverse osmosis-ion exchange (AnMBR-RO-IE) process can produce high-grade reclaimed water with high energy efficiency, phosphorus resources recovery in the WWTPs has been rarely reported thus far. This study evaluated the feasibility of a phosphorus recovery batch reactor (PRBR) as an approach for the phosphate production from the P-enriched brine from AnMBR-RO-IE. With operating PRBR for 162 cycles, high to 85% of P recovery rate was obtained for 145 cycles, leading to a P production rate of 6.17 g/m3 domestic wastewater with nano-sorbents (NSs) consumption rate of 10.2 g/m3. Acidification pretreatment efficiently improved the adsorption capacity and reduced the NSs renewing frequency. High adsorption selectivity of NSs contributed to low impurities (<0.3%) in the P-enriched reclaimed solution. Moreover, the integrated AnMBR-RO-IE-PRBR process saved 47% of energy consumption compared to the present NEWater production process in Singapore. The innovative PRBR reactor was competitive compared to the commonly-used chemical precipitation methods in conventional WWTPs in terms of phosphorus recovery/loss and energy balance. It is expected that the proposed integrated process can offer new insights into the direction of phosphorus reclamation in the future WWTPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qian Zhao
- School of Municipal and Environmental Engineering, Shandong Jianzhu University, 1000 Fengming Road, Jinan, 250101, China; Shandong Province Co-Innovation Center of Green Building, Jinan, 250101, China.
| | - Jizhen Tian
- School of Municipal and Environmental Engineering, Shandong Jianzhu University, 1000 Fengming Road, Jinan, 250101, China
| | - Kefeng Zhang
- School of Municipal and Environmental Engineering, Shandong Jianzhu University, 1000 Fengming Road, Jinan, 250101, China; Shandong Province Co-Innovation Center of Green Building, Jinan, 250101, China
| | - Hongbo Wang
- School of Municipal and Environmental Engineering, Shandong Jianzhu University, 1000 Fengming Road, Jinan, 250101, China; Shandong Province Co-Innovation Center of Green Building, Jinan, 250101, China
| | - Mei Li
- School of Municipal and Environmental Engineering, Shandong Jianzhu University, 1000 Fengming Road, Jinan, 250101, China; Shandong Province Co-Innovation Center of Green Building, Jinan, 250101, China
| | - Shujuan Meng
- School of Space and Environment, Beihang University, Beijing, 100191, China
| | - Ruimin Mu
- School of Municipal and Environmental Engineering, Shandong Jianzhu University, 1000 Fengming Road, Jinan, 250101, China; Shandong Province Co-Innovation Center of Green Building, Jinan, 250101, China
| | - Lei Liu
- School of International Trade and Economics, Shandong University of Financial and Economics, Jinan, 250014, China
| | - Mengmeng Yin
- School of Municipal and Environmental Engineering, Shandong Jianzhu University, 1000 Fengming Road, Jinan, 250101, China; Shandong Province Co-Innovation Center of Green Building, Jinan, 250101, China
| | - Jingjing Li
- School of Municipal and Environmental Engineering, Shandong Jianzhu University, 1000 Fengming Road, Jinan, 250101, China; Shandong Province Co-Innovation Center of Green Building, Jinan, 250101, China
| | - Yu Liu
- Advanced Environmental Biotechnology Centre, Nanyang Environment and Water Research Institute, Nanyang Technological University, 1 Cleantech Loop, Singapore, 637141, Singapore; School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue, Singapore, 639798, Singapore.
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5
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The Use of Organic Coagulants in the Primary Precipitation Process at Wastewater Treatment Plants. WATER 2020. [DOI: 10.3390/w12061650] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Measurements for determining the effect of chemically enhanced primary treatment (CEPT) on the efficiency of pollutant removal from wastewater were carried out using conventional inorganic coagulants PIX113 with polymer A110 (Kemipol, Police, Poland) and unconventional cationic organic coagulants Cofloc (Attana, Coalville, UK) C29510 (Kemipol, Police, Poland) and Sedifloc 575 (3F Chimica, Sandrigo, Italy). The average removal efficiency in the 2-h sedimentation process was 46%, 34%, 8%, 12% for the total suspended solids, organic matter (COD), total nitrogen, and total phosphorus, respectively. The use of organic coagulants contributed to 14–81% increase of pollutant removal efficiency. Substantial discrepancies in biological nutrient removal processes were not discovered in two-phase (anaerobic-anoxic) experiments without and with the addition of the organic coagulants. The increase in organic matter removal efficiency as a result of the CEPT process may contribute to a 65–80% increase in biogas production. The conducted research confirms the possibility of using organic coagulants in the primary precipitation process in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) in accordance with the principles of maximum energy recovery, thereby promoting renewable energy sources. Additionally, organic coagulants, as opposed to inorganic ones, do not cause a significant increase of chloride and sulfate ion concentrations, which facilitates the use of treated wastewater in the water reuse systems, such as irrigation of agricultural crops.
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Pallares-Vega R, Blaak H, van der Plaats R, de Roda Husman AM, Hernandez Leal L, van Loosdrecht MCM, Weissbrodt DG, Schmitt H. Determinants of presence and removal of antibiotic resistance genes during WWTP treatment: A cross-sectional study. WATER RESEARCH 2019; 161:319-328. [PMID: 31203037 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2019.05.100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2019] [Revised: 05/28/2019] [Accepted: 05/29/2019] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs), linking human fecal residues and the environment, are considered as hotspots for the spread of antimicrobial resistance (AMR). In order to evaluate the role of WWTPs and underlying operational parameters for the removal of AMR, the presence and removal efficiency of a selected set of 6 antimicrobial resistance genes (ARGs) and 2 mobile genetic elements (MGEs) was evaluated by means of qPCR in influent and effluent samples from 62 Dutch WWTPs. The role of possible factors impacting the concentrations of ARGs and MGEs in the influent and their removal was identified through statistical analysis. ARGs and the class I integron-integrase gene (intI1) were, on average, removed to a similar extent (1.76 log reduction) or better (+0.30-1.90 logs) than the total bacteria (measured as 16S rRNA gene). In contrast, broad-host-range plasmids (IncP-1) had a significantly increased (p < 0.001) relative abundance after treatment. The presence of healthcare institutions in the area served did only slightly increase the concentrations of ARGs or MGEs in influent. From the extended panel of operational parameters, rainfall, increasing the hydraulic load of the plant, most significantly (p < 0.05) affected the treatment efficiency by decreasing it on average -0.38 logs per time the flow exceeded the average daily flow. Our results suggest that overall, WWTP treatments do not favor the proliferation of the assessed resistance genes but might increase the relative abundance of broad-host-range plasmids of the IncP-1 type.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebeca Pallares-Vega
- Wetsus, European Centre of Excellence for Sustainable Water Technology, Leeuwarden, the Netherlands; Department of Biotechnology, Delft University of Technology, Delft, the Netherlands
| | - Hetty Blaak
- Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | | | - Ana M de Roda Husman
- Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Lucia Hernandez Leal
- Wetsus, European Centre of Excellence for Sustainable Water Technology, Leeuwarden, the Netherlands
| | | | - David G Weissbrodt
- Department of Biotechnology, Delft University of Technology, Delft, the Netherlands
| | - Heike Schmitt
- Wetsus, European Centre of Excellence for Sustainable Water Technology, Leeuwarden, the Netherlands; Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands; Centre for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, the Netherlands.
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7
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The Shock Effect of Inorganic Suspended Solids in Surface Runoff on Wastewater Treatment Plant Performance. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2019; 16:ijerph16030453. [PMID: 30720755 PMCID: PMC6388196 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph16030453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2018] [Revised: 01/26/2019] [Accepted: 01/31/2019] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Previous studies on the water quality of surface runoff often focused on the chemical oxygen demand (COD), nitrogen, phosphorus, and total suspended solid (TSS), but little is known in terms of the inorganic suspended solids (ISS). This research investigated the effects of ISS carried by surface runoff on the treatment efficiency of the pretreatment facilities and the ratio of mixed liquor volatile suspended solid to mixed liquor suspended solid (MLVSS/MLSS) of the activated sludge in a wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) with the anaerobic-anoxic-oxic (AAO) process in Chongqing city, China. The results showed that the surface runoff had a long-lasting impact on the grit removal capacity of the grit chamber, affecting the normal operation after the rainfall. In contrast, the primary sedimentation tank showed strong impact resistance with higher removal rates of COD, TSS, and ISS. Nonetheless, the primary settling tank aggravates the removal of organic carbon in sewage during rainfall, having a negative impact on subsequent biological treatment. The ISS in the surface runoff could increase the sludge concentration and decrease the MLVSS/MLSS ratio. After repeated surface runoff impact, the MLVSS/MLSS ratio in the activated sludge would drop below even 0.3, interrupting the normal operation of WWTP.
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Drewnowski J, Remiszewska-Skwarek A, Fudala-Ksiazek S, Luczkiewicz A, Kumari S, Bux F. The evaluation of COD fractionation and modeling as a key factor for appropriate optimization and monitoring of modern cost-effective activated sludge systems. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND HEALTH. PART A, TOXIC/HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES & ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING 2019; 54:736-744. [PMID: 30938573 DOI: 10.1080/10934529.2019.1592531] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
A study was conducted to characterize the raw wastewater entering a modern cost effective municipal WWTP in Poland using two approaches; 1) a combination of modeling and carbonaceous oxygen demand (COD) fractionation using respirometric test coupled with model estimation (RT-ME) and 2) flocculation/filtration COD fractionation method combined with BOD measurements (FF-BOD). It was observed that the particulate fractions of COD obtained using FF-BOD method was higher than those estimated by RT-ME approach. Contrary to the above, the values of inert soluble fraction evaluated by FF-BOD method was significantly lower than RT-ME approach (2.4% and 3.9% respectively). Furthermore, the values for low colloidal and particulate fractions as well as soluble inert fractions were different than expected from a typical municipal wastewater. These observations suggest that even at low load (10% of the total wastewater treatment inflow), the industrial wastewater composition can significantly affect the characteristics of municipal wastewater which could also affect the performance and accuracy of respirometric tests. Therefore, in such cases, comparison of the respirometric tests with flocculation/filtration COD/BOD measurements are recommended. Oxygen uptake rate profile with settled wastewater and/or after coagulation-flocculation, however, could still be recommended as a "rapid" control method for monitoring/optimising modern cost-effective wastewater treatment plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jakub Drewnowski
- a Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering , Gdansk University of Technology , Gdansk , Poland
| | | | - Sylwia Fudala-Ksiazek
- a Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering , Gdansk University of Technology , Gdansk , Poland
| | - Aneta Luczkiewicz
- a Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering , Gdansk University of Technology , Gdansk , Poland
| | - Sheena Kumari
- c Institute for Water and Wastewater Technology , Durban University of Technology , Durban , South Africa
| | - Faizal Bux
- c Institute for Water and Wastewater Technology , Durban University of Technology , Durban , South Africa
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Cao YS, Tang JG, Henze M, Yang XP, Gan YP, Li J, Kroiss H, van Loosdrecht MCM, Zhang Y, Daigger GT. The leakage of sewer systems and the impact on the 'black and odorous water bodies' and WWTPs in China. WATER SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY : A JOURNAL OF THE INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION ON WATER POLLUTION RESEARCH 2019; 79:334-341. [PMID: 30865604 DOI: 10.2166/wst.2019.051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
China has achieved significant progress on wastewater treatment and aquatic environmental protection. However, leakage (in- and exfiltration) of sewer systems is still an issue. By using the statistical data of water and wastewater in 2016 in China, and the person loads (PLs) of water and wastewater in Singapore, the leakage fractions of hydraulic flow, organic carbon (COD), nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) mass loading, and in-sewer COD biological removal in the sewer systems of China (except Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan), Shanghai, Guangzhou and Beijing were reported for the first time. The fractions of hydraulic flow infiltration (13%, Shanghai and Guangzhou) and exfiltration (39%, China) were calculated. Except Beijing, whose sewer networks are under appropriate management with small leakage fractions, the exfiltration fractions of COD (including in-sewer biological COD removal) ranged from 41% (Shanghai) to 66% (China) and averaged 55%; N ranged from 18% (Shanghai) to 48% (China) and averaged 33%; and P ranged from 23% (Shanghai and Guangzhou) to 44% (China) and averaged 30%. The exfiltrated sewage, COD, N and P not only wastes resources, but also contaminates the aquatic environment (especially groundwater) and contributes to 'black and odorous water bodies'. In- and exfiltration in the sewer network leads to low influent COD concentration, C/N ratio and high inorganic solids and inert particulate COD concentrations of many municipal wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) causing high cost for nutrient removal, poor resource recovery, additional reactor/settler volume requirement and other operational problems. Therefore, tackling sewer leakage is of primary importance to today's environment in China. Recommendations for the inspection of sewer systems and the rehabilitation of damaged sewers as well as the development of design and operation guidelines of municipal WWTPs tailored to the specific local sewage characteristics and other conditions are proposed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y S Cao
- 41 Tian Jia Xian, Blk 6, 215006 Suzhou, China E-mail:
| | - J G Tang
- Shanghai Urban Construction, Design and Research Institute, No. 3447 Dong Fang Rd., 200125 Shanghai, China
| | - M Henze
- Department of Environ. Eng., Technical University of Denmark, Bldg 115 DK-2860, Lyngby, Denmark
| | - X P Yang
- China Water and Wastewater Treatment Association, No. 5 East road Lian Huwa Est Rd, B Tower Time Square 2310, Beijing, China
| | - Y P Gan
- China Water and Wastewater Treatment Association, No. 5 East road Lian Huwa Est Rd, B Tower Time Square 2310, Beijing, China
| | - J Li
- School of Environ. and Civil Eng., Jia Nang University, No. 1800 Li Avenue, Pin Hou District, Wuxi, China
| | - H Kroiss
- Institute of Water Quality and Resource Management, Vienna University of Technology, Vienna 1040, Austria
| | - M C M van Loosdrecht
- Department of Biotechnology, Delft University of Technology, Van der Maasweg 9, 2629 HZ Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Y Zhang
- China Water Industry Association, No. 9, San Li He, 100835 Beijing, China
| | - G T Daigger
- Department of Civil and Environ. Eng., University of Michigan, 1351 Beal Avenue, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
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Drewnowski J, Remiszewska-Skwarek A, Fernandez-Morales FJ. Model based evaluation of plant improvement at a large wastewater treatment plant (WWTP). JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND HEALTH. PART A, TOXIC/HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES & ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING 2018; 53:669-675. [PMID: 29465297 DOI: 10.1080/10934529.2018.1438821] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
In this work, the effect of the improvement carried out at a large-scale wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) was evaluated, by means of modelling works, with the aim to determine the influence of the modernization over the process performance. After modernization, the energy consumption due to the aeration decreased about a 20% maintaining the effluent quality. In order to double-check the good effluent quality, modelling works were carried out at the full-scale plant. After calibration, the model was applied to the upgraded full-scale plant obtaining deviations lower than 10%. Then, the performance of the main biochemical processes was evaluated in terms of oxygen uptake rate (OUR), ammonia uptake rate (AUR), and chemical oxygen demand (COD) consumption. The rate of the main processes depending on the aeration, that is OUR and AUR, were about 22 gO2/(kg VSS·h) and 2.9 gN/(kg VSS·h), respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jakub Drewnowski
- a Department of Sanitary Engineering , Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Gdansk University of Technology , Gdansk , Poland
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11
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Vilajeliu-Pons A, Koch C, Balaguer MD, Colprim J, Harnisch F, Puig S. Microbial electricity driven anoxic ammonium removal. WATER RESEARCH 2018; 130:168-175. [PMID: 29220717 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2017.11.059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2017] [Revised: 11/07/2017] [Accepted: 11/27/2017] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Removal of nitrogen, mainly in form of ammonium (NH4+), in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) is a highly energy demanding process, mainly due to aeration. It causes costs of about half a million Euros per year in an average European WWTP. Alternative, more economical technologies for the removal of nitrogen compounds from wastewater are required. This study proves the complete anoxic conversion of ammonium (NH4+) to dinitrogen gas (N2) in continuously operated bioelectrochemical systems at the litre-scale. The removal rate is comparable to conventional WWTPs with 35 ± 10 g N m-3 d-1 with low accumulation of NO2-, NO3-, N2O. In contrast to classical aerobic nitrification, the energy consumption is considerable lower (1.16 ± 0.21 kWh kg-1 N, being more than 35 times less than for the conventional wastewater treatment). Biotic and abiotic control experiments confirmed that the anoxic nitrification was an electrochemical biological process mainly performed by Nitrosomonas with hydroxylamine as the main substrate (mid-point potential, Eox = +0.67 ± 0.08 V vs. SHE). This article proves the technical feasibility and reduction of costs for ammonium removal from wastewater, investigates the underlying mechanisms and discusses future engineering needs.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Christin Koch
- Department of Environmental Microbiology, Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research GmbH - UFZ, Leipzig, Germany.
| | - Maria D Balaguer
- LEQUiA, Institute of the Environment, University of Girona, Girona, Spain
| | - Jesús Colprim
- LEQUiA, Institute of the Environment, University of Girona, Girona, Spain
| | - Falk Harnisch
- Department of Environmental Microbiology, Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research GmbH - UFZ, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Sebastià Puig
- LEQUiA, Institute of the Environment, University of Girona, Girona, Spain
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Model of Suspended Solids Removal in the Primary Sedimentation Tanks for the Treatment of Urban Wastewater. WATER 2017. [DOI: 10.3390/w9060448] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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13
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Alexandre B, Barbara G, Laure W, Bruno D, Adriana GO, Emmanuelle V. Development of a multiple-class analytical method based on the use of synthetic matrices for the simultaneous determination of commonly used commercial surfactants in wastewater by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr A 2016; 1450:64-75. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2016.04.078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2016] [Revised: 04/25/2016] [Accepted: 04/27/2016] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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14
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Jabari P, Yuan Q, Oleszkiewicz JA. Potential of hydrolysis of particulate COD in extended anaerobic conditions to enhance biological phosphorous removal. Biotechnol Bioeng 2016; 113:2377-85. [PMID: 27144731 DOI: 10.1002/bit.25999] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2016] [Revised: 04/15/2016] [Accepted: 04/25/2016] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The effect of anaerobic hydrolysis of particulate COD (pCOD) on biological phosphorous removal in extended anaerobic condition was investigated through (i) sequencing batch reactors (SBR)s with anaerobic hydraulic retention time (HRT) of 0.8, 2, and 4 h; (ii) batch tests using biomass from a full scale biological nutrient removal (BNR) plant; and (iii) activated sludge modeling (BioWin 4.1 simulation). The results from long-term SBRs operation showed that phosphorus removal was correlated to the ratio of filtered COD (FCOD) to total phosphorus (TP) in the influent. Under conditions with low FCOD/TP ratio (average of 20) in the influent, extending anaerobic HRT to 4 h in the presence of pCOD did not significantly improve overall phosphorous removal. During the period with high FCOD/TP ratio (average of 37) in the influent, all SBRs removed phosphorous completely, and the long anaerobic HRT did not have negative effect on overall phosphorous removal. The batch tests also showed that pCOD at different concentration during 4 h test did not affect the rate of anaerobic phosphorus release. The rate of anaerobic hydrolysis of pCOD was significantly low and extending the anaerobic HRT was ineffective. The simulation (BioWin 4.1) of SBRs with low influent FCOD/TP ratio showed that the default kinetics of anaerobic hydrolysis in ASM2d overestimated phosphorous removal in the SBRs (high anaerobic hydrolysis of pCOD). The default anaerobic hydrolysis rate in BioWin 4.1 (ten times lower) could produce similar phosphorous removal to that in the experiment. Results showed that the current kinetics of anaerobic hydrolysis in ASM2d could lead to considerable error in predicting phosphorus removal in processes with extended anaerobic HRT. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 2016;113: 2377-2385. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Jabari
- Department of Civil Engineering, University of Manitoba, 15 Gillson St., EITC Bldg E1-368, Winnipeg, MB, Canada, R3T5V6.
| | - Q Yuan
- Department of Civil Engineering, University of Manitoba, 15 Gillson St., EITC Bldg E1-368, Winnipeg, MB, Canada, R3T5V6
| | - J A Oleszkiewicz
- Department of Civil Engineering, University of Manitoba, 15 Gillson St., EITC Bldg E1-368, Winnipeg, MB, Canada, R3T5V6
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15
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De Gisi S, Sabia G, Casella P, Farina R. An integrated approach for monitoring efficiency and investments of activated sludge-based wastewater treatment plants at large spatial scale. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2015; 523:201-218. [PMID: 25863511 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.03.106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2015] [Revised: 03/23/2015] [Accepted: 03/23/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
WISE, the Water Information System for Europe, is the web-portal of the European Commission (EU) that disseminates the quality state of the receiving water bodies and the efficiency of the municipal wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) in order to monitor advances in the application of both the Water Framework Directive (WFD) as well as the Urban Wastewater Treatment Directive (UWWTD). With the intention to develop WISE applications, the aim of the work was to define and apply an integrated approach capable of monitoring the efficiency and investments of activated sludge-based WWTPs located in a large spatial area, providing the following outcomes useful to the decision-makers: (i) the identification of critical facilities and their critical processes by means of a Performance Assessment System (PAS), (ii) the choice of the most suitable upgrading actions, through a scenario analysis. (iii) the assessment of the investment costs to upgrade the critical WWTPs and (iv) the prioritization of the critical facilities by means of a multi-criteria approach which includes the stakeholders involvement, along with the integration of some technical, environmental, economic and health aspects. The implementation of the proposed approach to a high number of municipal WWTPs highlighted how the PAS developed was able to identify critical processes with a particular effectiveness in identifying the critical nutrient removal ones. In addition, a simplified approach that considers the cost related to a basic-configuration and those for the WWTP integration, allowed to link the critical processes identified and the investment costs. Finally, the questionnaire for the acquisition of data such as that provided by the Italian Institute of Statistics, the PAS defined and the database on the costs, if properly adapted, may allow for the extension of the integrated approach on an EU-scale by providing useful information to water utilities as well as institutions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabino De Gisi
- Department of Civil, Environmental, Land, Building Engineering and Chemistry (DICATECh), Technical University of Bari, Via E. Orabona 4, 70125 Bari, Italy.
| | - Gianpaolo Sabia
- Italian National Agency for New Technologies, Energy and Sustainable Economic Development, ENEA, Water Resource Management Lab., via Martiri di Monte Sole 4, 40129 Bologna (BO), Italy
| | - Patrizia Casella
- Italian National Agency for New Technologies, Energy and Sustainable Economic Development, ENEA, Water Resource Management Lab., via Martiri di Monte Sole 4, 40129 Bologna (BO), Italy
| | - Roberto Farina
- Italian National Agency for New Technologies, Energy and Sustainable Economic Development, ENEA, Water Resource Management Lab., via Martiri di Monte Sole 4, 40129 Bologna (BO), Italy
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16
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Silva C, Quadros S, Ramalho P, Rosa MJ. A tool for a comprehensive assessment of treated wastewater quality. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2014; 146:400-406. [PMID: 25199602 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2014.03.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2013] [Revised: 03/17/2014] [Accepted: 03/30/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
The main goal of a wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) is to comply with the treated wastewater (TWW) quality requirements. However, the assessment of this compliance is a rather complex process for WWTPs in the EU Member States, since it requires the integration of a large volume of data and several criteria according to EU Directives 91/271/EEC and 2000/60/EC. A tool for a comprehensive assessment of TWW quality in this context is herein presented. The tool's novelty relies on an integrated analysis of performance indicators (PIs) and new performance indices (PXs). PIs integrate the several compliance criteria into a single framework, supported by flowcharts for a straightforward assessment of TWW compliance by practitioners. PXs are obtained by applying a performance function to the concentration values analysed in the TWW for discharge or reuse. PXs are dimensionless and the scale adopted (0-300) defines three performance levels: unsatisfactory, acceptable and good performance. The reference values proposed for these levels and for the PIs were based on the EU legislation. The PXs complement the information provided by the PIs. While the latter assess the plant effectiveness in a given year (i.e. the TWW compliance with the requirements), PXs tackle the plant reliability, i.e. they allow to easily compare the performance of different parameters over the time and to identify when the performance did satisfy or fail the pre-established objectives and the distance that remains to achieve these targets. The tool was tested in 17 WWTPs and the most representative results are herein illustrated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catarina Silva
- Urban Water Division, Hydraulics and Environment Department, LNEC - National Civil Engineering Laboratory, Av. Brasil 101, 1700-066 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Sílvia Quadros
- Climate, Meteorology and Global Change Group (C_CMMG, CITA-A), Agricultural Sciences Department, Azores University, Rua Capitão João D' Avila, 9700-042 Angra do Heroísmo, Portugal
| | - Pedro Ramalho
- Urban Water Division, Hydraulics and Environment Department, LNEC - National Civil Engineering Laboratory, Av. Brasil 101, 1700-066 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Maria João Rosa
- Urban Water Division, Hydraulics and Environment Department, LNEC - National Civil Engineering Laboratory, Av. Brasil 101, 1700-066 Lisboa, Portugal.
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17
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Silva C, Quadros S, Ramalho P, Alegre H, Rosa MJ. Translating removal efficiencies into operational performance indices of wastewater treatment plants. WATER RESEARCH 2014; 57:202-214. [PMID: 24721667 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2014.03.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2013] [Revised: 03/12/2014] [Accepted: 03/13/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Removal efficiencies are often used to assess the performance of a single or a group of unit operations/processes (UOPs) of a wastewater treatment plant (WWTP). However, depending on the influent concentration (Cin), the same efficiency of removal (Er) may be insufficient or excessive to achieve the UOP or WWTP effluent quality requirements, expressed by concentration limit values (LVs). This paper proposes performance indices (PXs), Er-based, as new metrics for benchmarking, i.e. for assessing and improving the performance of each UOP or treatment step and ultimately of the WWTP as a multi-barrier system, and comprehensively describes the stepwise method of translating Ers into PXs. PXs are dimensionless and vary between 0 and 300 to define three performance levels: unsatisfactory (0-100), acceptable (100-200) and good (200-300) performance. The method developed takes into consideration Cin and LV, and the reference values for judging the performance are given from Er-Cin typical ranges and Er vs. Cin model curves, LV based and field data based. The general equations of the Er model curves are derived. A set of six curves is calibrated for TSS (Total Suspended Solids) and COD (Chemical Oxygen Demand) removal by primary sedimentation and activated sludge systems (carbon or combined carbon and nutrients removal), using 5-year (2006-2010) field data from five Portuguese WWTPs. A statistical analysis of the PX results is additionally proposed to assess treatment reliability. The new method is applied in two WWTPs and the PX results are compared with those of conventional measures - Er and performance indicators (PIs). The results demonstrate that, whereas a simplistic Er-driven or PI-driven management of the WWTPs shows limitations, the developed PXs are adequate measures for benchmarking removal efficiencies towards WWTP reliability and sustainability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catarina Silva
- Urban Water Division, Hydraulics and Environment Department, LNEC - National Civil Engineering Laboratory, Av. Brasil 101, 1700-066 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Sílvia Quadros
- Climate, Meteorology and Global Change Group (C_CMMG, CITA-A), Agricultural Sciences Department, Azores University, Rua Capitão João D' Avila, 9700-042 Angra do Heroísmo, Portugal
| | - Pedro Ramalho
- Urban Water Division, Hydraulics and Environment Department, LNEC - National Civil Engineering Laboratory, Av. Brasil 101, 1700-066 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Helena Alegre
- Urban Water Division, Hydraulics and Environment Department, LNEC - National Civil Engineering Laboratory, Av. Brasil 101, 1700-066 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Maria João Rosa
- Urban Water Division, Hydraulics and Environment Department, LNEC - National Civil Engineering Laboratory, Av. Brasil 101, 1700-066 Lisboa, Portugal.
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18
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Zhang L, Zhang S, Wang S, Wu C, Chen Y, Wang Y, Peng Y. Enhanced biological nutrient removal in a simultaneous fermentation, denitrification and phosphate removal reactor using primary sludge as internal carbon source. CHEMOSPHERE 2013; 91:635-640. [PMID: 23411089 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2012.12.071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2012] [Revised: 12/23/2012] [Accepted: 12/27/2012] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
The production of volatile fatty acids (VFAs) from primary sludge and the subsequent application to improve biological nutrient removal has drawn much attention. In this study, a novel approach of using primary sludge as an additional carbon source was conducted in batch tests. The nitritation effluent was directly injected into the sludge fermentation reactor to achieve nitrogen removal. Complete denitrification could be realized in the combined reactor. Moreover, injecting nitrite not only promoted the sludge stabilization process, but also reduced the release of phosphate and ammonium during sludge stabilization. The novel process was further evaluated in a continuous system by treating sludge dewatering liquors. Under optimum conditions, 85% removal of ammonium and 75% of total nitrogen could be obtained using primary sludge, resulting in the suitable effluent for recycling into the inlet of the wastewater treatment plant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liang Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, China.
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Gori R, Jiang LM, Sobhani R, Rosso D. Effects of soluble and particulate substrate on the carbon and energy footprint of wastewater treatment processes. WATER RESEARCH 2011; 45:5858-5872. [PMID: 21943568 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2011.08.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2011] [Revised: 08/20/2011] [Accepted: 08/22/2011] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Most wastewater treatment plants monitor routinely carbonaceous and nitrogenous load parameters in influent and effluent streams, and often in the intermediate steps. COD fractionation discriminates the selective removal of VSS components in different operations, allowing accurate quantification of the energy requirements and mass flows for secondary treatment, sludge digestion, and sedimentation. We analysed the different effects of COD fractions on carbon and energy footprint in a wastewater treatment plant with activated sludge in nutrient removal mode and anaerobic digestion of the sludge with biogas energy recovery. After presenting a simple rational procedure for COD and solids fractions quantification, we use our carbon and energy footprint models to quantify the effects of varying fractions on carbon equivalent flows, process energy demand and recovery. A full-scale real process was modelled with this procedure and the results are reported in terms of energy and carbon footprint. For a given process, the increase of the ratio sCOD/COD increases the energy demand on the aeration reactors, the associated CO(2) direct emission from respiration, and the indirect emission for power generation. Even though it appears as if enhanced primary sedimentation is a carbon and energy footprint mitigation practice, care must be used since the nutrient removal process downstream may suffer from an excessive bCOD removal and an increased mean cell retention time for nutrient removal may be required.
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Affiliation(s)
- Riccardo Gori
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering - DICEA, University of Florence, Via S. Marta 3, 50139 Florence, Italy
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Srinivasan S, Aslan A, Xagoraraki I, Alocilja E, Rose JB. Escherichia coli, enterococci, and Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron qPCR signals through wastewater and septage treatment. WATER RESEARCH 2011; 45:2561-2572. [PMID: 21420709 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2011.02.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2010] [Revised: 02/07/2011] [Accepted: 02/08/2011] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
Fecal indicators such as Escherichia coli and enterococci are used as regulatory tools to monitor water with 24 h cultivation techniques for possible input of sewage or feces and presence of potential enteric pathogens yet their source (human or animal) cannot be determined with routine methods. This critical uncertainty has furthered water pollution science toward new molecular approaches. Members of Bacteroides genus, such as Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron are found to have features that allow their use as alternative fecal indicators and for Microbial Source Tracking (MST). The overall aim of this study was to evaluate the concentration and fate of B. thetaiotaomicron, throughout a wastewater treatment facility and septage treatment facility. A large number of samples were collected and tested for E. coli and enterococci by both cultivation and qPCR assays. B. thetaiotaomicron qPCR equivalent cells (mean: 1.8 × 10(7)/100 mL) were present in significantly higher concentrations than E. coli or enterococci in raw sewage and at the same levels in raw septage. The removal of B. thetaiotaomicron target qPCR signals was similar to E. coli and enterococci DNA during the treatment of these wastes and ranged from 3 to 5 log(10) for wastewater and was 7 log(10) for the septage. A significant correlation was found between B. thetaiotaomicron marker and each of the conventional indicators throughout the waste treatment process for both raw sewage and septage. A greater variability was found with enterococci when compared to E. coli, and CFU and equivalent cells could be contrasted by various treatment processes to examine removal and inactivation via septage and wastewater treatment. These results are compared and contrasted with other qPCR studies and other targets in wastewater samples providing a view of DNA targets in such environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sangeetha Srinivasan
- Department of Fisheries and Wildlife, 13, Natural Resources, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA
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