1
|
Szota C, Danger A, Poelsma PJ, Hatt BE, James RB, Rickard A, Burns MJ, Cherqui F, Grey V, Coleman RA, Fletcher TD. Developing simple indicators of nitrogen and phosphorus removal in constructed stormwater wetlands. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 928:172192. [PMID: 38604363 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.172192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2023] [Revised: 03/11/2024] [Accepted: 04/01/2024] [Indexed: 04/13/2024]
Abstract
Quantifying pollutant removal by stormwater wetlands requires intensive sampling which is cost-prohibitive for authorities responsible for a large number of wetlands. Wetland managers require simple indicators that provide a practical means of estimating performance and prioritising maintenance works across their asset base. We therefore aimed to develop vegetation cover and metrics derived from monitoring water level, as simple indicators of likely nutrient pollutant removal from stormwater wetlands. Over a two-year period, we measured vegetation cover and water levels at 17 wetlands and used both to predict nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) removal. Vegetation cover explained 48 % of variation in total nitrogen (TN) removal; with a linear relationship suggesting an approximate 9 % loss in TN removal per 10 % decrease in vegetation cover. Vegetation cover is therefore a useful indicator of TN removal. Further development of remotely-sensed data on vegetation configuration, species and condition will likely improve the accuracy of TN removal estimates. Total phosphorus (TP) removal was not predicted by vegetation cover, but was weakly related to the median water level which explained 25 % of variation TP removal. Despite weak prediction of TP removal, metrics derived from water level sensors identified faults such as excessive inflow and inefficient outflow, which in combination explained 50 % of the variation in the median water level. Monitoring water levels therefore has the potential to detect faults prior to loss of vegetation cover and therefore TN removal, as well as inform the corrective action required.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Christopher Szota
- School of Agriculture, Food and Ecosystem Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Burnley, Victoria, Australia.
| | | | - Peter J Poelsma
- School of Agriculture, Food and Ecosystem Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Burnley, Victoria, Australia
| | - Belinda E Hatt
- School of Agriculture, Food and Ecosystem Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Burnley, Victoria, Australia; Melbourne Water Corporation, Docklands, Victoria, Australia
| | - Robert B James
- School of Agriculture, Food and Ecosystem Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Burnley, Victoria, Australia
| | - Alison Rickard
- Melbourne Water Corporation, Docklands, Victoria, Australia
| | - Matthew J Burns
- School of Agriculture, Food and Ecosystem Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Burnley, Victoria, Australia
| | - Frédéric Cherqui
- School of Agriculture, Food and Ecosystem Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Burnley, Victoria, Australia; Univ Lyon, INSA-LYON, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, DEEP, F-69621, F-69622, Villeurbanne, France
| | - Vaughn Grey
- School of Agriculture, Food and Ecosystem Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Burnley, Victoria, Australia; Melbourne Water Corporation, Docklands, Victoria, Australia
| | - Rhys A Coleman
- School of Agriculture, Food and Ecosystem Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Burnley, Victoria, Australia; Melbourne Water Corporation, Docklands, Victoria, Australia
| | - Tim D Fletcher
- School of Agriculture, Food and Ecosystem Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Burnley, Victoria, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Pei S, Hoang L, Fu G, Butler D. Real-time control of urban drainage systems using neuro-evolution. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2024; 360:121133. [PMID: 38763119 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2024.121133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2024] [Revised: 05/08/2024] [Accepted: 05/09/2024] [Indexed: 05/21/2024]
Abstract
With climate change and urbanization, existing urban drainage systems are being stressed beyond their design capacity in many parts of the world. Real-time control (RTC) can improve the performance of these systems and reduce the need for system upgrades. However, developing optimal control policies for RTC is a challenging research area due to computational demands, high uncertainties and system dynamics. This study presents a new RTC method using neuro-evolution for controlling combined sewer overflow (CSO) in urban drainage systems. Neuro-evolution is an approach to neural network research by evolutionary algorithms. Neuro-evolution realizes RTC by training the control policy in advance, thus avoiding the online optimization process in the application period. The simulation results of the benchmark Astlingen network indicate that the trained control policy outperforms the equal filling degree strategy in terms of CSO volume reduction and robustness in the face of tank level uncertainty. The performance analysis of the typical CSO events shows that the control policy mainly makes positive contributions during 'small' CSO events rather than 'large' ones. In particular, the effectiveness of the control policy in 'small' CSO events is more prominent in the initial phase of the events compared with the final phase. This work stands to support a foundation for future studies in the control of urban water systems based on neuro-evolution.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shengwei Pei
- Centre for Water Systems, Department of Engineering, University of Exeter, EX4 4QF, United Kingdom.
| | - Lan Hoang
- IBM Research Europe UKI, Daresbury, Warrington, United Kingdom
| | - Guangtao Fu
- Centre for Water Systems, Department of Engineering, University of Exeter, EX4 4QF, United Kingdom
| | - David Butler
- Centre for Water Systems, Department of Engineering, University of Exeter, EX4 4QF, United Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Razguliaev N, Flanagan K, Muthanna T, Viklander M. Urban stormwater quality: A review of methods for continuous field monitoring. WATER RESEARCH 2024; 249:120929. [PMID: 38056202 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2023.120929] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2023] [Revised: 11/19/2023] [Accepted: 11/24/2023] [Indexed: 12/08/2023]
Abstract
Urban stormwater is contaminated by a wide range of substances whose concentrations vary greatly between locations, as well as between and during rain events. This literature review evaluates advantages and limitations of current methods for using continuous water quality monitoring for stormwater characterization and control. High-temporal-resolution measurements have been used to improve the understanding of stormwater quality dynamics and pollutant pathways, facilitate the performance evaluation of stormwater control measures and improve operation of the urban drainage system with real-time control. However, most sensors used to study stormwater were developed for either centralized water treatment or natural water contexts and adaptation is necessary. At present, the primary application of interest in stormwater - characterization of pollutant concentrations - can only be achieved through the use of indirect measurements with site-specific relationships of pollutants to basic physical-chemical parameters. In addition, various problems arise in the field context, associated with intermittent or variable flow rates, the accumulation of debris and sediment, adverse conditions for electrical equipment and human factors. Obtaining reliable continuous stormwater quality data requires the adoption of best practices, including the calibration and regular maintenance of sensors, verification of data and accounting for the considerable uncertainties in data; however, the literature review showed that improvement is needed among the scientific community in implementing and documenting these practices.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- N Razguliaev
- Department of Civil, Environmental and Natural Resources Engineering, Luleå University of Technology, Luleå 971 87, Sweden.
| | - K Flanagan
- Department of Civil, Environmental and Natural Resources Engineering, Luleå University of Technology, Luleå 971 87, Sweden
| | - T Muthanna
- Department of Civil, Environmental and Natural Resources Engineering, Luleå University of Technology, Luleå 971 87, Sweden; Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - M Viklander
- Department of Civil, Environmental and Natural Resources Engineering, Luleå University of Technology, Luleå 971 87, Sweden
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Mikelonis AM, Hall J, Dunn CA, McArthur T, Wiley G, Hintz CL, Steenbock J, Serre S, Calfee MW, Pirhalla M. Monitoring spore washoff during a biological contamination incident response using automated stormwater samplers and sensors to predict contamination movement. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 897:165307. [PMID: 37414183 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.165307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2023] [Revised: 06/30/2023] [Accepted: 07/02/2023] [Indexed: 07/08/2023]
Abstract
This study examined the washoff of Bacillus globigii (Bg) spores from concrete, asphalt, and grass surfaces by stormwater. Bg is a nonpathogenic surrogate for Bacillus anthracis, which is a biological select agent. Areas (2.74 m × 7.62 m) of concrete, grass, and asphalt were inoculated twice at the field site during the study. Spore concentrations were measured in runoff water after seven rainfall events (1.2-65.4 mm) and complimentary watershed data were collected for soil moisture, depth of water in collection troughs, and rainfall using custom-built telemetry units. An average surface loading of 107.79 Bg spores/m2 resulted in peak spore concentrations in runoff water of 102, 260, and 4.1 CFU/mL from asphalt, concrete, and grass surfaces, respectively. Spore concentrations in the stormwater runoff were greatly reduced by the third rain event after both inoculations, but still detectable in some samples. When initial rainfall events occurred longer after the initial inoculation, the spore concentrations (both peak and average) in the runoff were diminished. The study also compared rainfall data from 4 tipping bucket rain gauges and a laser disdrometer and found they performed similarly for values of total rainfall accumulation while the laser disdrometer provided additional information (total storm kinetic energy) useful in comparing the seven different rain events. The soil moisture probes are recommended for assistance in predicting when to sample sites with intermittent runoff. Sampling trough level readings were critical to understanding the dilution factor of the storm event and the age of the sample collected. Collectively the spore and watershed data are useful for emergency responders faced with remediation decisions after a biological agent incident as the results provide insight into what equipment to deploy and that spores may persist in runoff water at quantifiable levels for months. The spore measurements are also a novel dataset for stormwater model parameterization for biological contamination of urban watersheds.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anne M Mikelonis
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, Center for Environmental Solutions and Emergency Response, Homeland Security and Materials Management Division, Research Triangle Park, NC, United States of America.
| | - John Hall
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, Center for Environmental Solutions and Emergency Response, Homeland Security and Materials Management Division, Cincinnati, OH, United States of America
| | - Chris A Dunn
- U.S. Coast Guard, Base Elizabeth City, Elizabeth City, NC, United States of America
| | - Timothy McArthur
- Science Systems and Applications Inc., Research Triangle Park, NC, United States of America
| | - Garrett Wiley
- Jacobs Technology Inc., Research Triangle Park, NC, United States of America
| | - Chelsea L Hintz
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, Center for Environmental Solutions and Emergency Response, Homeland Security and Materials Management Division, Cincinnati, OH, United States of America
| | - Joshua Steenbock
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, Center for Environmental Solutions and Emergency Response, Homeland Security and Materials Management Division, Cincinnati, OH, United States of America
| | - Shannon Serre
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Land and Emergency Management, Consequence Management Advisory Division, Research Triangle Park, NC, United States of America
| | - Michael Worth Calfee
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, Center for Environmental Solutions and Emergency Response, Homeland Security and Materials Management Division, Research Triangle Park, NC, United States of America
| | - Michael Pirhalla
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, Center for Environmental Solutions and Emergency Response, Homeland Security and Materials Management Division, Research Triangle Park, NC, United States of America
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Sweetapple C, Webber J, Hastings A, Melville-Shreeve P. Realising smarter stormwater management: A review of the barriers and a roadmap for real world application. WATER RESEARCH 2023; 244:120505. [PMID: 37647769 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2023.120505] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2022] [Revised: 07/01/2023] [Accepted: 08/18/2023] [Indexed: 09/01/2023]
Abstract
Effective management of stormwater systems is necessary for protection of both the built and natural environments. However, stormwater management is facing multiple, growing challenges, including climate change, ageing infrastructure, population growth, urbanisation, environmental concerns, regulatory and institutional changes and public awareness. While the potential of 'smart', internet-of-things enabled stormwater management systems to address these challenges is increasingly being recognised, with considerable evidence in literature for the benefits of more data-driven approaches, implementation to date remains low. This paper, therefore, provides a comprehensive review of the potential barriers to adoption of smarter stormwater management practices that require addressing, and provides a roadmap for real world application. Barriers related to all elements of stormwater management, from the asset sensing to the data analytics and online optimisation, are identified. Technical challenges discussed include the availability and reliability of technologies, technological and physical limitations, decision making, uncertainty and security. Technical barriers are rapidly reducing and there is increasing evidence in the academic literature of the efficacy of smart technologies. However, socio-economic barriers remain a significant challenge, and issues such as trust and lack of confidence, resistance to change, expense, and lack of knowledge and guidance are reviewed. A 'smart stormwater management wheel' that provides a flexible and iterative approach for implementing smart functionality is also presented. Whilst acting as a roadmap, this aims to facilitate a structured methodology for overcoming barriers and benchmarking progress, and may be used to explore trade-offs and relationships between differing levels of implementation for each of the constituent technologies in a smart stormwater system.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chris Sweetapple
- Centre for Water Systems, College of Engineering, Mathematics and Physical Sciences, University of Exeter, North Park Road, Exeter, Devon EX4 4QF, United Kingdom.
| | - James Webber
- Centre for Water Systems, College of Engineering, Mathematics and Physical Sciences, University of Exeter, North Park Road, Exeter, Devon EX4 4QF, United Kingdom
| | - Anna Hastings
- East Sussex County Council, County Hall, St Anne's Crescent, Lewes, East Sussex, BN7 1UE, United Kingdom
| | - Peter Melville-Shreeve
- Centre for Water Systems, College of Engineering, Mathematics and Physical Sciences, University of Exeter, North Park Road, Exeter, Devon EX4 4QF, United Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Xu H, Randall M, Fryd O. Urban stormwater management at the meso-level: A review of trends, challenges and approaches. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2023; 331:117255. [PMID: 36738635 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2023.117255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2022] [Revised: 12/24/2022] [Accepted: 01/05/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Cities worldwide are facing a significant threat of stormwater hazards caused by the increase in extreme downpours and urbanization. Meso-level urban stormwater management focuses on alleviating the detrimental impacts of urban flooding and enhancing water resource utilization at the block or community scale, typically through 1) specific policies and management rules; 2) catchment-scale scenario simulation, optimization and evaluation; 3) the group of stormwater control measures implementation. It may effectively coordinate macro-level urban stormwater management planning and micro-level distributed stormwater control facilities. This study conducts a review of Urban Stormwater Management at Meso-level (USM-M) with a view to research publication trends, citation analysis, geographic spread and subject category, as well as content analysis, including temporal progression and research gaps. The Web of Science database and CiteSpace are used for the bibliometric analysis of 66 articles from 2006 to 2021. The results show that the number of USM-M topic articles generally has an upward trend over the years. Whilst the United States and China are leading research on this topic, the European countries have diverse local research and dense cooperation. Research foci have generally shifted from theoretical frameworks to multi-element subdivided topics and specific technical roadmaps. Moreover, the spatial layout optimization and multi-functional integration are, or will be, potential research directions in terms of enhancing stormwater utilization and co-benefits of USM-M. This systematic review concludes trends, challenges and potential approaches of USM-M, and aims to provide recommendations for researchers and policymakers on the development of a more advanced and comprehensive USM-M.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hanwen Xu
- Department of Geosciences and Natural Resources Management, University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg, Denmark.
| | - Mark Randall
- Department of Geosciences and Natural Resources Management, University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg, Denmark
| | - Ole Fryd
- Department of Geosciences and Natural Resources Management, University of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg, Denmark
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Ghodsi SH, Zhu Z, Matott LS, Rabideau AJ, Torres MN. Optimal siting of rainwater harvesting systems for reducing combined sewer overflows at city scale. WATER RESEARCH 2023; 230:119533. [PMID: 36638734 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2022.119533] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2022] [Revised: 12/23/2022] [Accepted: 12/25/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
The installation of green infrastructure (GI) is an effective approach to manage urban stormwater and combined sewer overflow (CSO) by restoring pre-development conditions in urban areas. Research on simulation-optimization techniques to aid with GI planning decision-making is expanding. However, due to high computational expense, the simulation-optimization methods are often based on design storm events, and it is unclear how much different rainfall scenarios (i.e., design storm events vs. long-term historical rainfall data) impact the optimal siting of GI. The Parallel Pareto Archived Dynamically Dimensioned Search (ParaPADDS) algorithm in a novel simulation-optimization tool OSTRICH-SWMM was used to leverage distributed computing resources. A case study was conducted to optimally site rainwater harvesting cisterns within 897 potential subcatchments throughout the City of Buffalo, New York. Seven design storm events with different return periods and rainfall durations and a one-month historical rainfall time series were considered. The results showed that the optimal solutions of siting cisterns using event-based scenarios, though less computationally expensive, may not perform well under continuous rainfall scenarios, suggesting design rainfall scenarios should be carefully considered for optimizing GI planning. The impact of rainfall scenarios was particularly significant in the middle region of the Pareto front of multi-objective optimization. Utilizing high-performance parallel computing, OSTRICH-SWMM is a promising tool to optimize GI at large spatial and temporal scales.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Seyed Hamed Ghodsi
- Department of Civil, Structural and Environmental Engineering, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY, USA
| | - Zhenduo Zhu
- Department of Civil, Structural and Environmental Engineering, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY, USA.
| | | | - Alan J Rabideau
- Department of Civil, Structural and Environmental Engineering, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY, USA
| | - María Nariné Torres
- Department of Civil, Structural and Environmental Engineering, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY, USA
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Hesarkazzazi S, Bakhshipour AE, Hajibabaei M, Dittmer U, Haghighi A, Sitzenfrei R. Battle of centralized and decentralized urban stormwater networks: From redundancy perspective. WATER RESEARCH 2022; 222:118910. [PMID: 35964512 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2022.118910] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2022] [Revised: 07/08/2022] [Accepted: 07/25/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Recent research underpinned the effectiveness of topological decentralization for urban stormwater networks (USNs) during the planning stage in terms of both capital savings and resilience enhancement. However, how centralized and decentralized USNs' structures with various degrees of redundancy (i.e., redundant water flow pathways) project resilience under functional and structural failure remains an unresolved issue. In this work, we present a systemic and generic framework to investigate the impact of adding redundant flow paths on resilience based on three strategies for optimal centralized versus decentralized USNs. Furthermore, a tailored graph-theory based measure (i.e., eigenvector centrality) is proposed to introduce redundant paths to the critical locations of USNs. The proposed framework is then applied to a real large-scale case study. The results confirm the critical role of layout decentralization under both functional (e.g., extreme precipitation events), and structural failure (e.g., pipe collapse). Moreover, the findings indicate that the implementation of redundant paths could increase resilience performance by up to 8% under functional failure without changing the network's major structural characteristics (i.e., sewer diameters, lengths, and storage capacity), only by leveraging the effective flow redistribution. The scheme proposed in this study can be a fruitful initiative for further improving the USNs' resilience during both planning and rehabilitation stages.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sina Hesarkazzazi
- Unit of Environmental Engineering, Institute of Infrastructure, University of Innsbruck, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Amin E Bakhshipour
- Department of Civil Engineering, Institute for Urban Water Management, Technical University Kaiserslautern, 67663 Kaiserslautern, Germany
| | - Mohsen Hajibabaei
- Unit of Environmental Engineering, Institute of Infrastructure, University of Innsbruck, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Ulrich Dittmer
- Department of Civil Engineering, Institute for Urban Water Management, Technical University Kaiserslautern, 67663 Kaiserslautern, Germany
| | - Ali Haghighi
- Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Shahid Chamran University of Ahvaz, 61357831351 Ahvaz, Iran
| | - Robert Sitzenfrei
- Unit of Environmental Engineering, Institute of Infrastructure, University of Innsbruck, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria.
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Azadgoleh MA, Mohammadi MM, Ghodrati A, Sharifi SS, Palizban SMM, Ahmadi A, Vahidi E, Ayar P. Characterization of contaminant leaching from asphalt pavements: A critical review of measurement methods, reclaimed asphalt pavement, porous asphalt, and waste-modified asphalt mixtures. WATER RESEARCH 2022; 219:118584. [PMID: 35580389 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2022.118584] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2021] [Revised: 04/29/2022] [Accepted: 05/08/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
In recent years, the pavement industry has been seeking sustainable development through recycling reclaimed asphalt pavement and reusing other waste materials as replacements for asphalt mixture constituents. Incorporating waste material into asphalt mixture and the presence of pollutants such as exhaust fumes and gasoline due to vehicle traffic may lead to contaminants leaching from asphalt pavements to underlying soil layers and groundwater aquifers, posing serious risks to ecosystems and the environment. To cast light on contaminant leaching from asphalt pavements, this article presents a comprehensive review of the literature that is divided into four research areas: evaluation of leaching measurement methods, leaching from recycled asphalt materials, leaching characteristics of porous asphalt pavements, and waste-modified asphalt mixtures. Moreover, a critical discussion of bibliometric data, literature content and knowledge gaps in this domain is provided to help highway agencies and environmental scientists address contaminant leaching from asphalt pavements. Finally, some potential research directions are suggested for future research works.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Ali Ghodrati
- School of Civil Engineering, Iran University of Science and Technology, Tehran, Iran
| | - Seyed Sina Sharifi
- School of Civil Engineering, Iran University of Science and Technology, Tehran, Iran
| | | | - Arman Ahmadi
- Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering, University of California, Davis, USA
| | - Ehsan Vahidi
- Department of Mining and Metallurgical Engineering, Mackay School of Earth Sciences and Engineering, University of Nevada, Reno, USA
| | - Pooyan Ayar
- School of Civil Engineering, Iran University of Science and Technology, Tehran, Iran.
| |
Collapse
|