Intrapartum cardiotocograph monitoring and perinatal outcomes for women at risk: Literature review

Intrapartum fetal monitoring practices in Norway: A population-based study

OBJECTIVE

To describe intrapartum fetal monitoring methods used in all births in Norway in 2019-2020, assess adherence to national guidelines, investigate variation by women's risk status, and explore associations influencing monitoring practices.

METHODS

A nationwide population-based study. We collected data about all pregnancies with a gestational age ≥ 22 weeks during 2019-2020 from the Medical Birth Registry of Norway. We used descriptive analyses, stratified for risk status, to examine fetal monitoring methods used in all deliveries. Univariable and multivariable logistic regression models were used to determine factors associated with monitoring with cardiotocography (CTG) in low-risk, straightforward births.

RESULTS

In total, 14 285 (14%) deliveries were monitored with only intermittent auscultation (IA), 46214 (46%) with only CTG, and 33417 (34%) with IA and CTG combined. Four percent (2 067/50 533) of women with risk factors were monitored with IA only. Half (10589/21 282) of the low-risk women with straightforward births were monitored with CTG. Maternal and fetal characteristics, size of the birth unit and regional practices influenced use of CTG monitoring in this group.

CONCLUSIONS

Most births are monitored with CTG only, or combined with IA. Half the women with low-risk pregnancies and straightforward births were monitored with CTG although national guidelines recommending IA.

How does the use of continuous electronic fetal monitoring influence women's experiences of labour? A systematic integrative review of the literature from high income countries

BACKGROUND

A variety of technologies are used to monitor fetal wellbeing in labour. Different types of fetal monitoring devices impact women's experiences of labour and birth.

AIM

This review aims to understand how continuous electronic fetal monitoring (CEFM) influences women's experiences, with a focus on sense of control, active decision-making and mobility.

METHODS

A systematic search of the literature was conducted. Findings from qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods studies were analysed to provide a review of current evidence.

FINDINGS

Eighteen publications were included. The findings were synthesised into three themes: 'Feeling reassured versus anxious about the welfare of their baby', 'Feeling comfortable and free to be mobile versus feeling uncomfortable and restricted', and 'Feeling respected and empowered to make decisions versus feeling depersonalised with minimal control '. Women experienced discomfort and a lack of mobility as a result of some CEFM technologies. They often felt anxious and had mixed feelings about their baby's welfare whilst these were in use. Some women valued the data produced by CEFM technologies about the welfare of their baby. Many women experienced a sense of depersonalisation and lack of control whilst CEFM technologies were used.

DISCUSSION

Fetal monitoring technologies influence women's experiences of labour both positively and negatively. Wireless devices were associated with the most positive response as they enabled greater freedom of movement.

CONCLUSION

The design of emerging fetal monitoring technologies should incorporate elements which foster freedom of movement, are comfortable and provide women with a sense of choice and control. The implementation of fetal monitoring that enables these elements should be prioritised by health professionals.

Tending to the machine: The impact of intrapartum fetal surveillance on women in Australia

Qualitative research about women and birthing people's experiences of fetal monitoring during labour and birth is scant. Labour and birth is often impacted by wearable or invasive monitoring devices, however, most published research about fetal monitoring is focused on the wellbeing of the fetus. This manuscript is derived from a larger mixed methods study, 'WOmen's Experiences of Monitoring Baby (The WOMB Study)', aiming to increase understanding of the experiences of women and birthing people in Australia, of being monitored; and about the information they received about fetal monitoring devices during pregnancy. We constructed a national cross-sectional survey that was distributed via social media in May and June, 2022. Responses were received from 861 participants. As far as we are aware, this is the first survey of the experiences of women and birthing people of intrapartum fetal monitoring conducted in Australia. This paper comprises the analysis of the free text survey responses, using qualitative and inductive content analysis. Two categories were constructed, Tending to the machine, which explores participants' perceptions of the way in which clinicians interacted with fetal monitoring technologies; and Impressions of the machine, which explores the direct impact of fetal monitoring devices upon the labour and birth experience of women and birthing people. The findings suggest that some clinicians need to reflect upon the information they provide to women and birthing people about monitoring. For example, freedom of movement is an important aspect of supporting the physiology of labour and managing pain. If freedom of movement is important, the physical restriction created by a wired cardiotocograph is inappropriate. Many participants noticed that clinicians focused their attention primarily on the technology. Prioritising the individual needs of the woman or birthing person is key to providing high quality woman-centred intrapartum care. Women should be provided with adequate information regarding the risks and benefits of different forms of fetal monitoring including how the form of monitoring might impact her labour experience.

Fetal Heart Rate Auscultation, 4th Edition

Intermittent auscultation (IA) is an evidence-based method of fetal surveillance during labor for birthing people with low-risk pregnancies. It is a central component of efforts to reduce the primary cesarean rate and promote vaginal birth (American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, 2019; Association of Women's Health, Obstetric and Neonatal Nurses, 2022a). The use of intermittent IA decreased with the introduction of electronic fetal monitoring, while the increased use of electronic fetal monitoring has been associated with an increase of cesarean births. This practice monograph includes information on IA techniques; interpretation and documentation; clinical decision-making and interventions; communication; education, staffing, legal issues; and strategies to implement IA.

Evidence-based intrapartum care during vaginal births: Direct observations in a tertiary care hospital in Central Sri Lanka

Background

Evidence-based practice (EBP) is an effective approach to improve maternal and newborn outcomes at birth.

Objective

This study aimed to assess the current intrapartum practices of a tertiary care hospital in Central Province, Sri Lanka, during vaginal births. The benchmark for this assessment was the World Health Organisation's (WHO) recommendations on intrapartum care for a positive childbirth experience.

Methods

An observational study was conducted at the delivery room of Teaching Hospital, Peradeniya with the participation of 196 labouring women who were selected using systematic random sampling. A non-participant observation checklist covering labour room admission procedures, management of the first, second, and third stages of labour, and immediate care of the newborn and postpartum mother was used for the data collection. The care interventions implemented throughout labour and childbirth were observed and recorded. The data analysis was done using SPSS version 22.

Results

WHO-recommended practices such as providing privacy (33.2%), offering oral fluids (39.3%), and opioids for pain relief (48.5%) were found to be infrequent. Encouraging correct pushing techniques (77.6%), early breastfeeding (83.2%), regular assessment of vaginal bleeding (91.3%), skin-to-skin contact (93.4%), and using prophylactic uterotonics (100.0%) were found to be frequent. However, labour companionship, use of upright positions during labour, women's choice of birth position, and use of manual or relaxation techniques for pain relief were not observed in hospital intrapartum care.

Conclusion

The findings of the study indicate that additional attention and monitoring are required to align the current intrapartum care practices with the WHO recommendations. Moreover, the adoption of evidence-based intrapartum care should be encouraged by conveying the standard evidence-based intrapartum care guidelines to the grassroots level healthcare workers to avoid intrapartum interventions.

Fetal Heart Rate Auscultation, 4th Edition

Intermittent auscultation (IA) is an evidence-based method of fetal surveillance during labor for birthing people with low-risk pregnancies. It is a central component of efforts to reduce the primary cesarean rate and promote vaginal birth (American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, 2019; Association of Women's Health, Obstetric and Neonatal Nurses, 2022a). The use of intermittent IA decreased with the introduction of electronic fetal monitoring, while the increased use of electronic fetal monitoring has been associated with an increase of cesarean births. This practice monograph includes information on IA techniques; interpretation and documentation; clinical decision-making and interventions; communication; education, staffing, legal issues; and strategies to implement IA.

Trustworthy artificial intelligence and ethical design: public perceptions of trustworthiness of an AI-based decision-support tool in the context of intrapartum care

BACKGROUND

Despite the recognition that developing artificial intelligence (AI) that is trustworthy is necessary for public acceptability and the successful implementation of AI in healthcare contexts, perspectives from key stakeholders are often absent from discourse on the ethical design, development, and deployment of AI. This study explores the perspectives of birth parents and mothers on the introduction of AI-based cardiotocography (CTG) in the context of intrapartum care, focusing on issues pertaining to trust and trustworthiness.

METHODS

Seventeen semi-structured interviews were conducted with birth parents and mothers based on a speculative case study. Interviewees were based in England and were pregnant and/or had given birth in the last two years. Thematic analysis was used to analyze transcribed interviews with the use of NVivo. Major recurring themes acted as the basis for identifying the values most important to this population group for evaluating the trustworthiness of AI.

RESULTS

Three themes pertaining to the perceived trustworthiness of AI emerged from interviews: (1) trustworthy AI-developing institutions, (2) trustworthy data from which AI is built, and (3) trustworthy decisions made with the assistance of AI. We found that birth parents and mothers trusted public institutions over private companies to develop AI, that they evaluated the trustworthiness of data by how representative it is of all population groups, and that they perceived trustworthy decisions as being mediated by humans even when supported by AI.

CONCLUSIONS

The ethical values that underscore birth parents and mothers' perceptions of trustworthy AI include fairness and reliability, as well as practices like patient-centered care, the promotion of publicly funded healthcare, holistic care, and personalized medicine. Ultimately, these are also the ethical values that people want to protect in the healthcare system. Therefore, trustworthy AI is best understood not as a list of design features but in relation to how it undermines or promotes the ethical values that matter most to its end users. An ethical commitment to these values when creating AI in healthcare contexts opens up new challenges and possibilities for the design and deployment of AI.

Intrapartum cardiotocographic monitoring and its correlation with neonatal outcome

Introduction

Despite the advancements in perinatal care in past decades, perinatal asphyxia remains a serious problem leading to significant perinatal morbidity and mortality. Therefore, foetal monitoring during the intrapartum period is of paramount importance. Among various methods of fetal monitoring, cardiotocography is a form of electronic foetal monitoring in which there is simultaneous recording of foetal heart rate and uterine contractions.

Materials and Methods

This cross-sectional observational study was done in the labour room and neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) of a teaching Municipal Hospital in North India including 500 pregnant women of age group 18-45 years with singeleton fetus of gestation ≥36 weeks without any known congenital anomaly. Intrapartum cardiotocography (CTG) for 20 minutes was done within 12 hours prior to delivery and babies born to them were observed for birth asphyxia as Apgar score <7 at 1 minute as per using APGAR score less than 7 at 1 minute as per south east asia regional neonatal perinatal database (SEAR-NPD), world health organization (WHO) working definition.

Results

CTG tracing was normal/reassuring in 92% of pregnant women, nonreassuring in 7% and was abnormal in only 1%. In patients with abnormal and nonreassuring CTG, delivery by lower segment cesarian section (LSCS) was significantly high (P < .0001). APGAR scoring was done at 1 minute and 5 minutes of life, it was found that 4% babies were having score less than 7 at 1 minute with incidence of birth asphyxia 40 per 1,000 live births Neonatal seizure was significantly more in nonreassuring and abnormal CTG group (P value <.0001).

Conclusion

Abnormal CTG tracings result in higher incidence of operative interventions for deliveries. Abnormal CTG pattern during intrapartum CTG has high specificity and negative predictive value but has low sensitivity and positive predictive value for detection of birth asphyxia and need for NICU admission.

The social organisation of decision-making about intrapartum fetal monitoring: An Institutional Ethnography

BACKGROUND

International guidelines recommend intrapartum cardiotocograph (CTG) monitoring for women at risk for poor perinatal outcome. Research has not previously addressed how midwives and obstetricians enable or hinder women's decision-making regarding intrapartum fetal monitoring and how this work is structured by external organising factors.

AIM

To examine impacts of policy and research texts on midwives' and obstetricians' work with labouring women related to intrapartum fetal monitoring decision-making.

METHODS

We used a critical feminist qualitative methodology known as Institutional Ethnography (IE). The research was conducted in an Australian tertiary maternity service. Data collection included interviews, observation, and texts relating to midwives' and obstetricians' work with the fetal monitoring system. Textual mapping was used to explain how midwives' and obstetricians' work was organised to happen the way it was.

FINDINGS

CTG monitoring was initiated predominantly by midwives applying mandatory policy. Midwives described reluctance to inform labouring women that they had a choice of fetal monitoring method. Discursive approaches used in a national fetal surveillance guideline, a Cochrane systematic review, and the largest randomised controlled trial regarding CTG monitoring in labour generated and reproduced assumptions that clinicians, not labouring women, were the appropriate decision-maker regarding fetal monitoring in labour.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

Guidelines structured midwives' and obstetricians' work in a manner that undermined women's participation in decisions about fetal monitoring method. Intrapartum fetal monitoring guidelines should be critically reviewed to ensure they encourage and enable midwives and obstetricians to support women to make decisions about intrapartum care.

Using Institutional Ethnography to Explicate the Everyday Realities of Nurses' Work in Labor and Delivery

Fetal health surveillance is a significant everyday work responsibility for labor and delivery nurses. Here, nursing care is increasingly focused on technological interventions, particularly with the use of continuous electronic fetal monitoring. Using Institutional Ethnography, we explored how nurses conduct this work and uncovered the ruling relations coordinating how nurses "do" fetal health surveillance. Analysis revealed how these powerful ruling relations associated with the biomedical and medical-legal discourses coordinated nurses' fetal monitoring work. Forms requiring documentation of biophysical data caused nurses to focus on technological interventions with much less attention given to holistic and supportive care measures. In doing so, nurses inadvertently activated and participated in these powerful ruling discourses. The practice of ensuring the safe birth of the baby through advances in technological surveillance and medical interventions took priority over well-established approaches to holistic nursing care.

Wanting to be 'with woman', not with machine: Midwives' experiences of caring for women being continuously monitored in labour

PROBLEM

Some continuous electronic fetal monitoring (CEFM) devices restrict women's bodily autonomy by limiting their mobility in labour and birth.

BACKGROUND

Little is known about how midwives perceive the impact of CEFM technologies on their practice.

AIM

This paper explores the way different fetal monitoring technologies influence the work of midwives.

METHODS

Wireless and beltless 'non-invasive fetal electrocardiogram' (NIFECG) was trialled on 110 labouring women in an Australian maternity hospital. A focus group pertaining to midwives' experiences of using CTG was conducted prior to the trial. After the trial, midwives were asked about their experiences of using NIFECG. All data were analysed using thematic analysis.

FINDINGS

Midwives felt that wired CTG creates barriers to physiological processes. Whilst wireless CTG enables greater freedom of movement for women, it requires constant 'fiddling' from midwives, drawing their attention away from the woman. Midwives felt the NIFECG better enabled them to be 'with woman'.

DISCUSSION

Midwives play a pivotal role in mediating the influence of CEFM on women's experiences in labour. Exploring the way in which different forms of CEFM impact on midwives' practice may assist us to better understand how to prioritise the woman in order to facilitate safe and satisfying birth experiences.

CONCLUSION

The presence of CEFM technology in the birth space impacts midwives' ways of working and their capacity to be woman-centred. Current CTG technology may impede midwives' capacity to be 'with woman'. Compared to the CTG, the NIFECG has the potential to enable midwives to provide more woman-centred care for those experiencing complex pregnancies.

Experiences and outcomes on the use of telemetry to monitor the fetal heart during labour: findings from a mixed methods study

BACKGROUND

Wireless continuous electronic fetal monitoring (CEFM) using telemetry offers potential for increased mobility during labour. United Kingdom national recommendations are that telemetry should be offered to all women having CEFM during labour. There is limited contemporary evidence on experiences of telemetry use or impacts it may have.

AIM

To gather in-depth knowledge about the experiences of women and midwives using telemetry, and to assess any impact that its use may have on clinical outcomes, mobility in labour, control or satisfaction.

METHODS

A convergent parallel mixed-methods study was employed. Grounded theory was adopted for interviews and analysis of 13 midwives, 10 women and 2 partners. Satisfaction, positions during labour and clinical outcome data was analysed from a cohort comparing telemetry (n = 64) with wired CEFM (n = 64). Qualitative and quantitative data were synthesised to give deeper understanding.

FINDINGS

Women using telemetry were more mobile and adopted more upright positions during labour. The core category A Sense of Normality encompassed themes of 'Being Free, Being in Control', 'Enabling and Facilitating' and 'Maternity Unit Culture'. Greater mobility resulted in increased feelings of internal and external control and increased perceptions of autonomy, normality and dignity. There was no difference in control or satisfaction between cohort groups.

CONCLUSIONS

When CEFM is used during labour, telemetry provides an opportunity to improve experience and support physiological capability. The use of telemetry during labour contributes to humanising birth for women who have CEFM and its use places them at the centre and in control of their birth experience.

"My whole room went into chaos because of that thing in the corner": Unintended consequences of a central fetal monitoring system

OBJECTIVE

Technologies for fetal heart rate monitoring have been widely introduced despite evidence of no improvement in perinatal outcomes. A significant body of research has raised concerns that healthcare information technologies can have unintended consequences. We sought to describe an unintended consequence of central fetal monitoring technology.

DESIGN

The research was conducted as an Institutional Ethnography. Data generated from interviews, focus groups, and observations were analysed to generate an account of midwives' experiences with the central fetal monitoring system.

SETTING

The birthing unit of one Australian maternity service with a central fetal monitoring system.

INFORMANTS

34 midwives and midwifery students who worked with the central fetal monitoring system.

FINDINGS

Midwives described a disruptive social event they named being K2ed. Clinicians responded to perceived cardiotocograph abnormalities by entering the birth room despite the midwife not having requested assistance. Being K2ed disrupted midwives' clinical work and generated anxiety. Clinical communication was undermined, and midwives altered their clinical practice. Midwives performed additional documentation work to attempt to avoid being K2ed.

KEY CONCLUSIONS

This is the first report of an unintended consequence relating to central fetal monitoring, demonstrating how central fetal monitoring technology potentially undermines safety by impacting on clinical and relational processes and outcomes in maternity care.

IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE

Current evidence does not support implementation or ongoing use of central fetal monitoring systems. Further research is needed to inform scaling down central fetal monitoring systems in a safe and supported way.

"I'm not doing what I should be doing as a midwife": An ethnographic exploration of central fetal monitoring and perceptions of clinical safety

BACKGROUND

Central fetal monitoring systems transmit cardiotocograph data to a central site in a maternity service. Despite a paucity of evidence of safety, the installation of central fetal monitoring systems is common.

AIM

This qualitative research sought to explore whether, and how, clinicians modified their clinical safety related behaviours following the introduction of a central monitoring system.

METHODS

An Institutional Ethnographic enquiry was conducted at an Australian hospital where a central fetal monitoring system had been installed in 2016. Informants (n=50) were midwifery and obstetric staff. Data collection consisted of interviews and observations that were analysed to understand whether and how clinicians modified their clinical safety related behaviours.

FINDINGS

The introduction of the central monitoring system was associated with clinical decision making without complete clinical information. Midwives' work was disrupted. Higher levels of anxiety were described for midwives and birthing women. Midwives reported higher rates of intervention in response to the visibility of the cardiotocograph at the central monitoring station. Midwives described a shift in focus away from the birthing woman towards documenting in the central monitoring system.

DISCUSSION

The introduction of central fetal monitoring prompted new behaviours among midwifery and obstetric staff that may potentially undermine clinical safety.

CONCLUSION

This research raises concerns that central fetal monitoring systems may not promote safe intrapartum care. We argue that research examining the safety of central fetal monitoring systems is required.

Midwives must, obstetricians may: An ethnographic exploration of how policy documents organise intrapartum fetal monitoring practice

BACKGROUND

The capacity for midwifery to improve maternity care is under-utilised. Midwives have expressed limits on their autonomy to provide quality care in relation to intrapartum fetal heart rate monitoring.

AIM

To explore how the work of midwives and obstetricians was textually structured by policy documents related to intrapartum fetal heart rate monitoring.

METHODS

Institutional Ethnography, a critical qualitative approach was used. Data were collected in an Australian hospital with a central fetal monitoring system. Midwives (n=34) and obstetricians (n=16) with experience working with the central fetal monitoring system were interviewed and observed. Policy documents were collected and analysed.

FINDINGS

Midwives' work was strongly structured by policy documents that required escalation of care for any CTG abnormality. Prior to being able to escalate care, midwives were often interrupted by other clinicians uninvited entry into the room in response to the CTG seen at the central monitoring station. While the same collection of documents guided the work of both obstetricians and midwives, they generated the expectation that midwives must perform certain tasks while obstetricians may perform others. Midwifery work was textually invisible.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

Our findings provide a concrete example of the way policy documents both reflect and generate power imbalances in maternity care. Obstetric ways of knowing and doing are reinforced within these documents and continue to diminish the visibility and autonomy of midwifery. Midwifery organisations are well placed to co-lead policy development and reform in collaboration with maternity consumer and obstetric organisations.

Continuous electronic fetal monitoring during prolonged labor may be a risk factor for having a child diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder

In just 50 years the prevalence of autism spectrum disorder has vaulted from extremely rare to common in every community. During this time, a large body of scientific literature has been amassed regarding what environmental, genetic, maternal, or obstetric factors may be at work. The hypothesis presented here identifies two developments in today's childbirth experience that, in combination, may provide the key: 1) a significant increase in the mean duration of labor and 2) the adoption of continuous electronic fetal monitoring utilizing Doppler ultrasound as the standard of care even in low-risk pregnancies. Together, these two factors have created an unprecedented fetal environment that has the potential to affect neuronal migration and cause non-inherited genetic disruptions. This paper will briefly describe the nature and history of contributing factors, why there may be a link between evolving maternal characteristics, obstetric trends and the increase in autism, as well as the means by which the hypothesis can be tested.