The complexities of proanthocyanidin biosynthesis and its regulation in plants

Beyond pathways: Accelerated flavonoids candidate identification and novel exploration of enzymatic properties using combined mapping populations of wheat

Although forward-genetics-metabolomics methods such as mGWAS and mQTL have proven effective in providing myriad loci affecting metabolite contents, they are somehow constrained by their respective constitutional flaws such as the hidden population structure for GWAS and insufficient recombinant rate for QTL. Here, the combination of mGWAS and mQTL was performed, conveying an improved statistical power to investigate the flavonoid pathways in common wheat. A total of 941 and 289 loci were, respectively, generated from mGWAS and mQTL, within which 13 of them were co-mapped using both approaches. Subsequently, the mGWAS or mQTL outputs alone and their combination were, respectively, utilized to delineate the metabolic routes. Using this approach, we identified two MYB transcription factor encoding genes and five structural genes, and the flavonoid pathway in wheat was accordingly updated. Moreover, we have discovered some rare-activity-exhibiting flavonoid glycosyl- and methyl-transferases, which may possess unique biological significance, and harnessing these novel catalytic capabilities provides potentially new breeding directions. Collectively, we propose our survey illustrates that the forward-genetics-metabolomics approaches including multiple populations with high density markers could be more frequently applied for delineating metabolic pathways in common wheat, which will ultimately contribute to metabolomics-assisted wheat crop improvement.

Poplar glutathione S-transferase PtrGSTF8 contributes to reactive oxygen species scavenging and salt tolerance

Glutathione S-transferases (GSTs) constitute a protein superfamily encoded by a large gene family and play a crucial role in plant growth and development. However, their precise functions in wood plant responses to abiotic stress are not fully understood. In this study, we isolated a Phi class glutathione S-transferase-encoding gene, PtrGSTF8, from poplar (Populus alba × P. glandulosa), which is significantly up-regulated under salt stress. Moreover, compared with wild-type (WT) plants, transgenic tobacco plants exhibited significant salt stress tolerance. Under salt stress, PtrGSTF8-overexpressing tobacco plants showed a significant increase in plant height and root length, and less accumulation of reactive oxygen species. In addition, these transgenic tobacco plants exhibited higher superoxide dismutase, peroxidase, and catalase activities and reduced malondialdehyde content compared with WT plants. Quantitative real-time PCR experiments showed that the overexpression of PtrGSTF8 increased the expression of numerous genes related to salt stress. Furthermore, PtrMYB108, a MYB transcription factor involved in salt resistance in poplar, was found to directly activate the promoter of PtrGSTF8, as demonstrated by yeast one-hybrid assays and luciferase complementation assays. Taken together, these findings suggest that poplar PtrGSTF8 contributes to enhanced salt tolerance and confers multiple growth advantages when overexpressed in tobacco.

Biosynthetic pathway analysis combined with feature-based molecular networking to comprehensively characterize the chemical constituents in seeds of Sterculia lychnophora

INTRODUCTION

The seeds of Sterculia lychnophora Hance, commonly known as Pangdahai (PDH) in Chinese, have found extensive use in both culinary and traditional medicinal practices. However, a comprehensive understanding of the chemical composition of PDH has been lacking.

OBJECTIVES

This study proposes a strategy that integrates biosynthetic pathway analysis with feature-based molecular networking (FBMN), aiming for a thorough and global characterization of the chemical compositions of PDH.

METHODOLOGY

The FBMN map reveals potential compounds with structural similarity, and the MS/MS fragments could be annotated based on library matches, which could predict the plausible biosynthetic pathways in PDH, accomplishing the annotation of compounds clustered in FBMN by integrating biosynthetic pathways.

RESULTS

Consequently, 126 compounds were plausibly or unambiguously identified, including 37 phenolic acids and glycosides, 20 flavonoids and glycosides, 12 procyanidins, 21 alkaloids, 22 lipids, and 14 others. Leveraging the information, 40 compounds, including 1 unique isoquinoline alkaloid and 2 rare linear furocoumarins, were isolated and confirmed.

CONCLUSIONS

This study not only demonstrates a highly effective approach for identifying compounds within complex herbal mixtures but also establishes a robust foundation for the further development of PDH.

A century of studying plant secondary metabolism-From "what?" to "where, how, and why?"

Over the past century, early advances in understanding the identity of the chemicals that collectively form a living plant have led scientists to deeper investigations exploring where these molecules localize, how they are made, and why they are synthesized in the first place. Many small molecules are specific to the plant kingdom and have been termed plant secondary metabolites, despite the fact that they can play primary and essential roles in plant structure, development, and response to the environment. The past 100 yr have witnessed elucidation of the structure, function, localization, and biosynthesis of selected plant secondary metabolites. Nevertheless, many mysteries remain about the vast diversity of chemicals produced by plants and their roles in plant biology. From early work characterizing unpurified plant extracts, to modern integration of 'omics technology to discover genes in metabolite biosynthesis and perception, research in plant (bio)chemistry has produced knowledge with substantial benefits for society, including human medicine and agricultural biotechnology. Here, we review the history of this work and offer suggestions for future areas of exploration. We also highlight some of the recently developed technologies that are leading to ongoing research advances.

Anthocyanin gene enrichment in the distal region of cotton chromosome A07: mechanisms of reproductive organ coloration

Introduction

The biosynthesis of secondary metabolites like anthocyanins is often governed by metabolic gene clusters (MGCs) in the plant ancestral genome. However, the existence of gene clusters specifically regulating anthocyanin accumulation in certain organs is not well understood.

Methods and results

In this study, we identify MGCs linked to the coloration of cotton reproductive organs, such as petals, spots, and fibers. Through genetic analysis and map-based cloning, we pinpointed key genes on chromosome A07, such as PCC/GhTT19, which is involved in anthocyanin transport, and GbBM and GhTT2-3A, which are associated with the regulation of anthocyanin and proanthocyanidin biosynthesis. Our results demonstrate the coordinated control of anthocyanin and proanthocyanidin pathways, highlighting the evolutionary significance of MGCs in plant adaptation. The conservation of these clusters in cotton chromosome A07 across species underscores their importance in reproductive development and color variation. Our study sheds light on the complex biosynthesis and transport mechanisms for plant pigments, emphasizing the role of transcription factors and transport proteins in pigment accumulation.

Discussion

This research offers insights into the genetic basis of color variation in cotton reproductive organs and the potential of MGCs to enhance our comprehension of plant secondary metabolism.

Genome-Wide Identification of Glutathione S-Transferase Genes in Eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) Reveals Their Potential Role in Anthocyanin Accumulation on the Fruit Peel

Anthocyanins are ubiquitous pigments derived from the phenylpropanoid compound conferring red, purple and blue pigmentations to various organs of horticultural crops. The metabolism of flavonoids in the cytoplasm leads to the biosynthesis of anthocyanin, which is then conveyed to the vacuoles for storage by plant glutathione S-transferases (GST). Although GST is important for transporting anthocyanin in plants, its identification and characterization in eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) remains obscure. In this study, a total of 40 GST genes were obtained in the eggplant genome and classified into seven distinct chief groups based on the evolutionary relationship with Arabidopsis thaliana GST genes. The seven subgroups of eggplant GST genes (SmGST) comprise: dehydroascorbate reductase (DHAR), elongation factor 1Bγ (EF1Bγ), Zeta (Z), Theta(T), Phi(F), Tau(U) and tetra-chlorohydroquinone dehalogenase TCHQD. The 40 GST genes were unevenly distributed throughout the 10 eggplant chromosomes and were predominantly located in the cytoplasm. Structural gene analysis showed similarity in exons and introns within a GST subgroup. Six pairs of both tandem and segmental duplications have been identified, making them the primary factors contributing to the evolution of the SmGST. Light-related cis-regulatory elements were dominant, followed by stress-related and hormone-responsive elements. The syntenic analysis of orthologous genes indicated that eggplant, Arabidopsis and tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) counterpart genes seemed to be derived from a common ancestry. RNA-seq data analyses showed high expression of 13 SmGST genes with SmGSTF1 being glaringly upregulated on the peel of purple eggplant but showed no or low expression on eggplant varieties with green or white peel. Subsequently, SmGSTF1 had a strong positive correlation with anthocyanin content and with anthocyanin structural genes like SmUFGT (r = 0.9), SmANS (r = 0.85), SmF3H (r = 0.82) and SmCHI2 (r = 0.7). The suppression of SmGSTF1 through virus-induced gene silencing (VIGs) resulted in a decrease in anthocyanin on the infiltrated fruit surface. In a nutshell, results from this study established that SmGSTF1 has the potential of anthocyanin accumulation in eggplant peel and offers viable candidate genes for the improvement of purple eggplant. The comprehensive studies of the SmGST family genes provide the foundation for deciphering molecular investigations into the functional analysis of SmGST genes in eggplant.

Metabolite and transcriptome analyses reveal the effects of salinity stress on the biosynthesis of proanthocyanidins and anthocyanins in grape suspension cells

Proanthocyanidins (PAs) and anthocyanins are flavonoids that contribute to the quality and health benefits of grapes and wine. Salinity affects their biosynthesis, but the underlying mechanism is still unclear. We studied the effects of NaCl stress on PA and anthocyanin biosynthesis in grape suspension cells derived from berry skins of Vitis vinifera L. Cabernet Sauvignon using metabolite profiling and transcriptome analysis. We treated the cells with low (75 mM NaCl) and high (150 mM NaCl) salinity for 4 and 7 days. High salinity inhibited cell growth and enhanced PA and anthocyanin accumulation more than low salinity. The salinity-induced PAs and anthocyanins lacked C5'-hydroxylation modification, suggesting the biological significance of delphinidin- and epigallocatechin-derivatives in coping with stress. The genes up-regulated by salinity stress indicated that the anthocyanin pathway was more sensitive to salt concentration than the PA pathway, and WGCNA analysis revealed the coordination between flavonoid biosynthesis and cell wall metabolism under salinity stress. We identified transcription factors potentially involved in regulating NaCl dose- and time-dependent PA and anthocyanin accumulation, showing the dynamic remodeling of flavonoid regulation network under different salinity levels and durations. Our study provides new insights into regulator candidates for tailoring flavonoid composition and molecular indicators of salt stress in grape cells.

Naturally colored cotton for wearable applications

Naturally colored cotton (NCC) offers an environmentally friendly fiber for textile applications. Processing white cotton fiber into textiles requires extensive energy, water, and chemicals, whereas processing of NCC skips the most polluting activity, scouring-bleaching and dyeing; therefore, NCC provides an avenue to minimize the harmful impacts of textile production. NCC varieties are suitable for organic agriculture since they are naturally insect and disease-resistant, salt and drought-tolerant. Various fiber shades, ranging from light green to tan and brown, are available in the cultivated NCC (Gossypium hirsutum L.) species. The pigments responsible for the color of brown cotton fiber are proanthocyanidins or their derivatives synthesized by the flavonoid pathway. Due to pigments, the NCC has excellent ultraviolet protection properties. Some brown cotton varieties exhibited superior thermal resistance of fiber that can be used to make fabrics with enhanced flame retardancy. Here, we review molecular mechanisms involved in the pigment production of brown cotton and challenges in breeding NCC varieties with a wide range of colors but without penalty in fiber quality. Also, we discuss opportunities for NCC with flame-retarding properties in textile applications.

Novel allelic variations in Tannin1 and Tannin2 contribute to tannin absence in sorghum

Sorghum is an important food crop commonly used for brewing, feed, and bioenergy. Certain genotypes of sorghum contain high concentrations of condensed tannins in seeds, which are beneficial, such as protecting grains from herbivore bird pests, but also impair grain quality and digestibility. Previously, we identified Tannin1 and Tannin2, each with three recessive causal alleles, regulate tannin absence in sorghum. In this study, via characterizing 421 sorghum accessions, we further identified three novel recessive alleles from these two genes. The tan1-d allele contains a 12-bp deletion at position 659 nt and the tan1-e allele contains a 10-bp deletion at position 771 nt in Tannin1. The tan2-d allele contains a C-to-T transition, which results in a premature stop codon before the bHLH domain in Tannin2, and was predominantly selected in China. We further developed KASP assays targeting these identified recessive alleles to efficiently genotype large populations. These studies provide new insights in sorghum domestication and convenient tools for breeding programs.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s11032-024-01463-y.

Bioactive Compounds from Plant Origin as Natural Antimicrobial Agents for the Treatment of Wound Infections

The rising prevalence of drug-resistant bacteria underscores the need to search for innovative and nature-based solutions. One of the approaches may be the use of plants that constitute a rich source of miscellaneous compounds with a wide range of biological properties. This review explores the antimicrobial activity of seven bioactives and their possible molecular mechanisms of action. Special attention was focused on the antibacterial properties of berberine, catechin, chelerythrine, cinnamaldehyde, ellagic acid, proanthocyanidin, and sanguinarine against Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus spp., Klebsiella pneumoniae, Acinetobacter baumannii, Escherichia coli, Serratia marcescens and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The growing interest in novel therapeutic strategies based on new plant-derived formulations was confirmed by the growing number of articles. Natural products are one of the most promising and intensively examined agents to combat the consequences of the overuse and misuse of classical antibiotics.

Pour some sugar on me: The diverse functions of phenylpropanoid glycosylation

The phenylpropanoid metabolism is the source of a vast array of specialized metabolites that play diverse functions in plant growth and development and contribute to all aspects of plant interactions with their surrounding environment. These compounds protect plants from damaging ultraviolet radiation and reactive oxygen species, provide mechanical support for the plants to stand upright, and mediate plant-plant and plant-microorganism communications. The enormous metabolic diversity of phenylpropanoids is further expanded by chemical modifications known as "decorative reactions", including hydroxylation, methylation, glycosylation, and acylation. Among these modifications, glycosylation is the major driving force of phenylpropanoid structural diversification, also contributing to the expansion of their properties. Phenylpropanoid glycosylation is catalyzed by regioselective uridine diphosphate (UDP)-dependent glycosyltransferases (UGTs), whereas glycosyl hydrolases known as β-glucosidases are the major players in deglycosylation. In this article, we review how the glycosylation process affects key physicochemical properties of phenylpropanoids, such as molecular stability and solubility, as well as metabolite compartmentalization/storage and biological activity/toxicity. We also summarize the recent knowledge on the functional implications of glycosylation of different classes of phenylpropanoid compounds. A balance of glycosylation/deglycosylation might represent an essential molecular mechanism to regulate phenylpropanoid homeostasis, allowing plants to dynamically respond to diverse environmental signals.

Polyphenol Composition, Antioxidant Capacity and Xanthine Oxidase Inhibition Mechanism of Furong Plum Fruits at Different Maturity Stages

An experiment was conducted on the polyphenol content, flavonoid content, anthocyanin content, and antioxidant capacity of Furong plum (Prunus salicina Lindl. cv. "furong") at different maturity stages to determine the most suitable maturity stage. The inhibition of plum polyphenols on xanthine oxidase (XOD) was measured, and its kinetics were studied to reveal the inhibitory mechanism. The experimental results showed that the polyphenol, flavonoid and anthocyanin contents of plums at the ripe stage were the highest, reaching 320.46 mg GAE/100 g FW, 204.21 mg/100 g FW, and 66.24 mg/100 g FW, respectively, in comparison those of the plums at the immature and mid-ripe stages. The antioxidant capacity of the ripe plums was stronger than it was during the other stages of the plums growth. Among them, the total polyphenols of the ripe plums exhibited the strongest antioxidant capacity (IC50 values against DPPH and hydroxyl radicals were 28.19 ± 0.67 μg/mL and 198.16 ± 7.55 μg/mL, respectively), which was between the antioxidant capacity of the free polyphenols and bound polyphenols. The major phenolic monomer compounds of plum polyphenols were flavan-3-ols (epicatechin, catechin, proanthocyanidin, and procyanidin B2), flavonols (myricetin), and phenolic acids (chlorogenic acid, ferulic acid, and protocatechuic acid). Additionally, plum polyphenols exhibited a strong inhibitory effect on XOD, with an IC50 value of 77.64 μg/mL. The inhibition kinetics showed that plum polyphenols are mixed-type inhibitors that inhibit XOD activity and that the inhibition process is reversible. The calculated values of Ki and α were 16.53 mmol/L and 0.26, respectively.

Evolutionary studies of the bHLH transcription factors belonging to MBW complex: their role in seed development

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

The MBW complex consist of proteins belonging to three major families (MYB, bHLH and WDR) involved in various processes throughout plant development: epidermal cell development, mucilage secretory cells and flavonoid biosynthesis. Recently, it has been reported that TT8, encoding a bHLH transcription factor, is involved in the biosynthesis of flavonoids in the seed coat and it also plays a role in bypassing the postzygotic barrier resulting from an unbalance in genetic loads of the parental lines. Here, we focus on the functional evolution, in seed development, of the bHLH proteins that are part of the MBW complex, complemented with a literature review.

METHODS

Phylogenetic analyses performed across seed plants and expression analyses in the reproductive tissues of four selected angiosperms (Arabidopsis thaliana, Brassica napus, Capsella rubella and Solanum lycopersicum) allow us to hypothesize on the evolution of its functions.

KEY RESULTS

TT8 expression in the innermost layer of the seed coat is conserved in the selected angiosperms. However, except for Arabidopsis, TT8 is also expressed in ovules, carpels and fruits. The homologues belonging to the sister clade of TT8, EGL3/GL3, involved in trichome development, are expressed in the outermost layer of the seed coat, suggesting potential roles in mucilage.

CONCLUSIONS

The ancestral function of these genes appears to be flavonoid biosynthesis, and the conservation of TT8 expression patterns in the innermost layer of the seed coat in angiosperms suggests that their function in postzygotic barriers might also be conserved. Moreover, the literature review and the results of the present study suggest a sophisticated association, linking the mechanisms of action of these genes to the cross-communication activity between the different tissues of the seed. Thus, it provides avenues to study the mechanisms of action of TT8 in the postzygotic triploid block, which is crucial because it impacts seed development in unbalanced crosses.

The regulatory role of MdNAC14-Like in anthocyanin synthesis and proanthocyanidin accumulation in red-fleshed apples

Flavonoids, such as anthocyanins and proanthocyanidins (PAs), play essential roles in plant growth, development, and stress response. Red-fleshed apples represent a valuable germplasm resource with high flavonoid content. Understanding and enriching the regulatory network controlling flavonoid synthesis in red-fleshed apples holds significant importance for cultivating high-quality fruits. In this study, we successfully isolated an NAC transcription factor, MdNAC14-Like, which exhibited a significant negative correlation with the content of anthocyanin. Transient injection of apple fruit and stable expression of callus confirmed that MdNAC14-Like acts as an inhibitor of anthocyanin synthesis. Through yeast monohybrid, electrophoretic mobility shift, and luciferase reporter assays, we demonstrated the ability of MdNAC14-Like to bind to the promoters of MdMYB9, MdMYB10, and MdUFGT, thus inhibiting their transcriptional activity and subsequently suppressing anthocyanin synthesis. Furthermore, our investigation revealed that MdNAC14-Like interacts with MdMYB12, enhancing the transcriptional activation of MdMYB12 on the downstream structural gene MdLAR, thereby promoting PA synthesis. This comprehensive functional characterization of MdNAC14-Like provides valuable insights into the intricate regulatory network governing anthocyanin and PA synthesis in apple.

GhmiR858 Inhibits the Accumulation of Proanthocyanidins by Targeting GhTT2L in Cotton (Gossypium hirsutum)

Proanthocyanidins (PAs) are predominantly regulated at the transcriptional level by sophisticated regulatory networks. In cotton, the role of miRNAs as key regulatory factors at the post-transcriptional level is still unclear. Here, we demonstrated that GhmiR858 negatively regulates PA accumulation in cotton leaves and calli by targeting GhTT2L. Excessive expression of GhmiR858 restrained the expression of GhTT2L, resulting in a significant decrease in PA abundance. Conversely, a reduction in GhmiR858 activity upregulated GhTT2L, which increased PA accumulation. Additionally, GhTT2L was found to positively regulate PA accumulation in both cotton and Arabidopsis. Further analyses showed that GhTT2L interacted with transcription factor GhTTG1, which directly binds to the GhANR promoter, to facilitate its transcription. This study provides new information to guide future studies of the PA regulatory mechanisms affected by miRNAs as well as the breeding of novel varieties of colored cotton with rich PAs.

Free Radical-Mediated Grafting of Natural Polysaccharides Such as Chitosan, Starch, Inulin, and Pectin with Some Polyphenols: Synthesis, Structural Characterization, Bioactivities, and Applications-A Review

Polyphenols and polysaccharides are very important natural products with special physicochemical properties and extensive biological activities. Recently, polyphenol-polysaccharide conjugates have been synthesized to overcome the limitations of polysaccharides and broaden their application range. Grafted copolymers are produced through chemical coupling, enzyme-mediated, and free radical-mediated methods, among which the free radical-induced grafting reaction is the most cost-effective, ecofriendly, safe, and plausible approach. Here, we review the grafting reactions of polysaccharides mediated by free radicals with various bioactive polyphenols, such as gallic acid (GA), ferulic acid (FA), and catechins. A detailed introduction of the methods and their mechanisms for free radical-mediated grafting is given. Structural characterization methods of the graft products, including thin-layer chromatography (TLC), ultraviolet-visible (UV-vis) spectroscopy, Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) analysis, and X-ray diffraction (XRD) are introduced. Furthermore, the biological properties of polyphenol-polysaccharide conjugates are also presented, including antioxidant, antibacterial, antidiabetic, and neuroprotection activities, etc. Moreover, the potential applications of polyphenol-polysaccharide conjugates are described. Finally, the challenges and research prospects of graft products are summarized.

Is specialized metabolite regulation specialized?

Recent technical and theoretical advances have generated an explosion in the identification of specialized metabolite pathways. In comparison, our understanding of how these pathways are regulated is relatively lagging. This and the relatively young age of specialized metabolite pathways has partly contributed to a default and common paradigm whereby specialized metabolite regulation is theorized as relatively simple with a few key transcription factors and the compounds are non-regulatory end-products. In contrast, studies into model specialized metabolites, such as glucosinolates, are beginning to identify a new understanding whereby specialized metabolites are highly integrated into the plants' core metabolic, physiological, and developmental pathways. This model includes a greatly extended compendium of transcription factors controlling the pathway, key transcription factors that co-evolve with the pathway and simultaneously control core metabolic and developmental components, and finally the compounds themselves evolve regulatory connections to integrate into the plants signaling machinery. In this review, these concepts are illustrated using studies in the glucosinolate pathway within the Brassicales. This suggests that the broader community needs to reconsider how they do or do not integrate specialized metabolism into the regulatory network of their study species.

Engineering Antioxidant Surfaces for Titanium-Based Metallic Biomaterials

Prolonged inflammation induced by orthopedic metallic implants can critically affect the success rates, which can even lead to aseptic loosening and consequent implant failure. In the case of adverse clinical conditions involving osteoporosis, orthopedic trauma and implant corrosion-wear in peri-implant region, the reactive oxygen species (ROS) activity is enhanced which leads to increased oxidative stress. Metallic implant materials (such as titanium and its alloys) can induce increased amount of ROS, thereby critically influencing the healing process. This will consequently affect the bone remodeling process and increase healing time. The current review explores the ROS generation aspects associated with Ti-based metallic biomaterials and the various surface modification strategies developed specifically to improve antioxidant aspects of Ti surfaces. The initial part of this review explores the ROS generation associated with Ti implant materials and the associated ROS metabolism resulting in the formation of superoxide anion, hydroxyl radical and hydrogen peroxide radicals. This is followed by a comprehensive overview of various organic and inorganic coatings/materials for effective antioxidant surfaces and outlook in this research direction. Overall, this review highlights the critical need to consider the aspects of ROS generation as well as oxidative stress while designing an implant material and its effective surface engineering.

Oligomeric Proanthocyanidins Confer Cold Tolerance in Rice through Maintaining Energy Homeostasis

Oligomeric proanthocyanidins (OPCs) are abundant polyphenols found in foods and botanicals that benefit human health, but our understanding of the functions of OPCs in rice plants is limited, particularly under cold stress. Two rice genotypes, named Zhongzao39 (ZZ39) and its recombinant inbred line RIL82, were subjected to cold stress. More damage was caused to RIL82 by cold stress than to ZZ39 plants. Transcriptome analysis suggested that OPCs were involved in regulating cold tolerance in the two genotypes. A greater increase in OPCs content was detected in ZZ39 than in RIL82 plants under cold stress compared to their respective controls. Exogenous OPCs alleviated cold damage of rice plants by increasing antioxidant capacity. ATPase activity was higher and poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) activity was lower under cold stress in ZZ39 than in RIL82 plants. Importantly, improvements in cold tolerance were observed in plants treated with the OPCs and 3-aminobenzamide (PARP inhibitor, 3ab) combination compared to the seedling plants treated with H₂O, OPCs, or 3ab alone. Therefore, OPCs increased ATPase activity and inhibited PARP activity to provide sufficient energy for rice seedling plants to develop antioxidant capacity against cold stress.