1
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Glass BH, Ashey J, Okongwu AR, Putnam HM, Barott KL. Characterization of a sperm motility signalling pathway in a gonochoric coral suggests conservation across cnidarian sexual systems. Proc Biol Sci 2023; 290:20230085. [PMID: 37528706 PMCID: PMC10394420 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2023.0085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2023] [Accepted: 07/10/2023] [Indexed: 08/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Most stony corals liberate their gametes into the water column via broadcast spawning, where fertilization hinges upon the activation of directional sperm motility. Sperm from gonochoric and hermaphroditic corals display distinct morphological and molecular phenotypes, yet it is unknown whether the signalling pathways controlling sperm motility are also distinct between these sexual systems. Here, we addressed this knowledge gap using the gonochoric, broadcast spawning coral Astrangia poculata. We found that cytosolic alkalinization of sperm activates the pH-sensing enzyme soluble adenylyl cyclase (sAC), which is required for motility. Additionally, we demonstrate for the first time in any cnidarian that sAC activity leads to protein kinase A (PKA) activation, and that PKA activity contributes to sperm motility activation. Ultrastructures of A. poculata sperm displayed morphological homology with other gonochoric cnidarians, and sAC exhibited broad structural and functional conservation across this phylum. These results indicate a conserved role for pH-dependent sAC-cAMP-PKA signalling in sperm motility across coral sexual systems, and suggest that the role of this pathway in sperm motility may be ancestral in metazoans. Finally, the dynamics of this pH-sensitive pathway may play a critical role in determining the sensitivity of marine invertebrate reproduction to anthropogenic ocean acidification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin H. Glass
- Department of Biology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Jill Ashey
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, RI 02881, USA
| | | | - Hollie M. Putnam
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, RI 02881, USA
| | - Katie L. Barott
- Department of Biology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
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2
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Wiggins SV, Schreiner R, Ferreira J, Marmorstein AD, Levin LR, Buck J. Carbonic Anhydrase Inhibitor Modulation of Intraocular Pressure Is Independent of Soluble Adenylyl Cyclase. J Ocul Pharmacol Ther 2023; 39:317-323. [PMID: 37097314 PMCID: PMC10398745 DOI: 10.1089/jop.2022.0180] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2022] [Accepted: 03/20/2023] [Indexed: 04/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Purpose: We investigated whether a clinically used carbonic anhydrase inhibitor (CAIs) can modulate intraocular pressure (IOP) through soluble adenylyl cyclase (sAC) signaling. Methods: IOP was measured 1 h after topical treatment with brinzolamide, a topically applied and clinically used CAIs, using direct cannulation of the anterior chamber in sAC knockout (KO) mice or C57BL/6J mice in the presence or absence of the sAC inhibitor (TDI-10229). Results: Mice treated with the sAC inhibitor TDI-10229 had elevated IOP. CAIs treatment significantly decreased increased intraocular pressure (IOP) in wild-type, sAC KO mice, as well as TDI-10229-treated mice. Conclusions: Inhibiting carbonic anhydrase reduces IOP independently from sAC in mice. Our studies suggest that the signaling cascade by which brinzolamide regulates IOP does not involve sAC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shakarr V. Wiggins
- Department of Pharmacology, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, New York, USA
- Graduate Program in Neuroscience, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, New York, USA
| | - Ryan Schreiner
- Division of Regenerative Medicine, Department of Medicine, Ansary Stem Cell Institute, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, New York, USA
| | - Jacob Ferreira
- Department of Pharmacology, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, New York, USA
| | | | - Lonny R. Levin
- Department of Pharmacology, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, New York, USA
| | - Jochen Buck
- Department of Pharmacology, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, New York, USA
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3
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Rossetti T, Jackvony S, Buck J, Levin LR. Bicarbonate, carbon dioxide and pH sensing via mammalian bicarbonate-regulated soluble adenylyl cyclase. Interface Focus 2021; 11:20200034. [PMID: 33633833 PMCID: PMC7898154 DOI: 10.1098/rsfs.2020.0034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Soluble adenylyl cyclase (sAC; ADCY10) is a bicarbonate (HCO3 -)-regulated enzyme responsible for the generation of cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP). sAC is distributed throughout the cell and within organelles and, as such, plays a role in numerous cellular signalling pathways. Carbonic anhydrases (CAs) nearly instantaneously equilibrate HCO3 -, protons and carbon dioxide (CO2); because of the ubiquitous presence of CAs within cells, HCO3 --regulated sAC can respond to changes in any of these factors. Thus, sAC can function as a physiological HCO3 -/CO2/pH sensor. Here, we outline examples where we have shown that sAC responds to changes in HCO3 -, CO2 or pH to regulate diverse physiological functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tom Rossetti
- Department of Pharmacology, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY 10065, USA
- Graduate Program in Pharmacology, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Stephanie Jackvony
- Department of Pharmacology, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY 10065, USA
- Graduate Program in Neuroscience, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Jochen Buck
- Department of Pharmacology, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Lonny R. Levin
- Department of Pharmacology, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY 10065, USA
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4
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Balbach M, Beckert V, Hansen JN, Wachten D. Shedding light on the role of cAMP in mammalian sperm physiology. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2018; 468:111-120. [PMID: 29146556 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2017.11.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2017] [Revised: 11/10/2017] [Accepted: 11/10/2017] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Mammalian fertilization relies on sperm finding the egg and penetrating the egg vestments. All steps in a sperm's lifetime crucially rely on changes in the second messenger cAMP (cyclic adenosine monophosphate). In recent years, it has become clear that signal transduction in sperm is not a continuum, but rather organized in subcellular domains, e.g. the sperm head and the sperm flagellum, with the latter being further separated into the midpiece, principal piece, and endpiece. To understand the underlying signaling pathways controlling sperm function in more detail, experimental approaches are needed that allow to study sperm signaling with spatial and temporal precision. Here, we will give a comprehensive overview on cAMP signaling in mammalian sperm, describing the molecular players involved in these pathways and the sperm functions that are controlled by cAMP. Furthermore, we will highlight recent advances in analyzing and manipulating sperm signaling with spatio-temporal precision using light.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melanie Balbach
- Center of Advanced European Studies and Research (caesar), Department of Molecular Sensory Systems, Bonn, Germany
| | - Vera Beckert
- Institute of Innate Immunity, University Hospital, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Jan N Hansen
- Institute of Innate Immunity, University Hospital, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Dagmar Wachten
- Institute of Innate Immunity, University Hospital, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany; Center of Advanced European Studies and Research (caesar), Minerva Max Planck Research Group, Molecular Physiology, Bonn, Germany.
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5
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Noda T, Minami K, Kojima A, Mizuno Y, Isono A, Sakase M, Fukushima M, Harayama H. Expression patterns of the activator type of cAMP-responsive element modulator in testicular germ cells of Japanese Black bulls. Theriogenology 2014; 81:1012-1020.e1. [DOI: 10.1016/j.theriogenology.2014.01.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2013] [Revised: 01/23/2014] [Accepted: 01/23/2014] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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6
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Chang JC, Oude-Elferink RPJ. Role of the bicarbonate-responsive soluble adenylyl cyclase in pH sensing and metabolic regulation. Front Physiol 2014; 5:42. [PMID: 24575049 PMCID: PMC3918592 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2014.00042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2013] [Accepted: 01/22/2014] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The evolutionarily conserved soluble adenylyl cyclase (sAC, adcy10) was recently identified as a unique source of cAMP in the cytoplasm and the nucleus. Its activity is regulated by bicarbonate and fine-tuned by calcium. As such, and in conjunction with carbonic anhydrase (CA), sAC constitutes an HCO(-) 3/CO(-) 2/pH sensor. In both alpha-intercalated cells of the collecting duct and the clear cells of the epididymis, sAC is expressed at significant level and involved in pH homeostasis via apical recruitment of vacuolar H(+)-ATPase (VHA) in a PKA-dependent manner. In addition to maintenance of pH homeostasis, sAC is also involved in metabolic regulation such as coupling of Krebs cycle to oxidative phosphorylation via bicarbonate/CO2 sensing. Additionally, sAC also regulates CFTR channel and plays an important role in regulation of barrier function and apoptosis. These observations suggest that sAC, via bicarbonate-sensing, plays an important role in maintaining homeostatic status of cells against fluctuations in their microenvironment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jung-Chin Chang
- Tytgat Institute for Liver and Intestinal Research, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Ronald P J Oude-Elferink
- Tytgat Institute for Liver and Intestinal Research, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam Amsterdam, Netherlands
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Potential biomarkers of nonobstructive azoospermia identified in microarray gene expression analysis. Fertil Steril 2013; 100:1686-94.e1-7. [PMID: 24012201 DOI: 10.1016/j.fertnstert.2013.07.1999] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2013] [Revised: 07/30/2013] [Accepted: 07/30/2013] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To identify potential biomarkers of azoospermia to determine a particular stage of spermatogenetic differentiation. DESIGN GeneChip Human Gene 1.0 ST microarray with validation at mRNA and protein levels. SETTING Basic research laboratory. PATIENT(S) Men with various types of nonobstructive azoospermia (n = 18) and with normal spermatogenesis (n = 4). INTERVENTION(S) Obtaining 31 testicular biopsy samples. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S) Gene expression analysis using the Affymetrix Human Gene 1.0 ST microarrays on 14 selected genes according to the highest fold change, verified with quantitative polymerase chain reaction and on independent set of microarray samples. Western blot and immunohistochemistry were additionally performed. RESULT(S) The comparative analysis of gene expression profiles in the infertile and control groups resulted in the selection of 4,946 differentially expressed genes. AKAP4, UBQLN3, CAPN11, GGN, SPACA4, SPATA3, and FAM71F1 were the most significantly down-regulated genes in infertile patients. Global analysis also led to identification of up-regulated genes-WBSCR28, ADCY10, TMEM225, SPATS1, FSCN3, GTSF1L, and GSG1-in men with late maturation arrest. Moreover, the results from quantitative polymerase chain reaction and Western blot largely confirmed the microarray data. CONCLUSION(S) The set of selected genes can be used to create a molecular diagnostic tool to determine the degree of spermatogenic impairment for men with idiopathic nonobstructive azoospermia.
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Xie F, Eddy EM, Conti M. Analysis of signaling pathways controlling flagellar movements in mammalian spermatozoa. Methods Enzymol 2013; 524:91-104. [PMID: 23498736 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-397945-2.00006-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/30/2023]
Abstract
The mammalian sperm flagellum is an example of organelles where sensory and signaling functions are integrated with motility. Structurally related to other ciliary appendages, it has unique cytoskeletal structures that serve to assemble signaling complexes as well as components of metabolic pathways. Flagellar motility is regulated by signaling events that control sperm ion milieu, energy production, and classical second messenger-dependent phosphorylation cascades. Here, we will concentrate on the cAMP signaling pathway associated with flagellar motility. We will describe methods to analyze the properties of a unique adenylyl cyclase termed sAC (gene name Sacy, Adcy10), which plays an essential function in cAMP accumulation in spermatozoa. This soluble adenylyl cyclase (sAC) is a sensor for bicarbonate, pH, and Ca(2+) and is likely involved in coupling energy homeostasis with signaling events. We will also describe methods to investigate the macromolecular complexes that bring together sAC and other signaling molecules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fang Xie
- Center for Reproductive Sciences, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, USA
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9
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Yu J, Zhou S, Jiang X, Bai J, Wang G. Knockdown of sAC affects sperm hyperactivation by cAMP-signaling pathway in male rat (Rattus norvegicus). ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2013. [DOI: 10.1007/s11434-013-5928-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
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10
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Novel approach for the detection of the vestiges of testicular mRNA splicing errors in mature spermatozoa of Japanese Black bulls. PLoS One 2013; 8:e57296. [PMID: 23468960 PMCID: PMC3582612 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0057296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2012] [Accepted: 01/20/2013] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
There is a serious problem with the reduction of male reproductive performance of the livestock in the world. We have a hypothesis that the splicing error-caused derivation of aberrant sperm motility-related proteins may be one of its causal factors. It is thought that fresh testicular tissues are necessary for the detection of splicing errors of the mRNA. However, it is difficult to obtain testicular tissues from a number of agriculturally important bulls by surgical methods, because such procedures may have deleterious effects on bulls’ reproductive performance. The aim of this study was to examine the usefulness of mRNA fragments collected from ejaculated spermatozoa as alternative analytical samples for detection of the splicing errors. In the first experiment, we characterized the alternative splicing and splicing error of bull testicular ADCY10 mRNA which coded the synthase of the regulatory molecule for sperm motility “cAMP”. In testes, the exon 11-lacking variant coding the truncated ADCY10 was derived by alternative splicing. However, splicing errors, which accompanied the frame shift in the second cyclase domain, were occasionally observed in the exon 11-lacking variant. This aberrant variant retained intronic nucleotides (4 bases, CCAG) connecting the initial part of exon 10 due to splicing errors and consequently yielded the cleavage site for a restriction enzyme (Cac8I) which recognized the nucleotide sequences (GCNNGC). In the second experiment, we recovered residual testicular mRNA fragments from ejaculated spermatozoa and observed the splicing error-caused derivation of the aberrant variant of ADCY 10. Ejaculated spermatozoa conserved mRNA fragments of the exon 11-lacking variant coding exons 9, 10, 12 and 13. Moreover, the above-mentioned aberrant variant of ADCY10 mRNA fragment was detectable by Cac8I digestion treatment using the sperm mRNAs. These results indicate the utility of sperm mRNA fragments for the detection of splicing errors in bull testicular mRNAs.
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11
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Luna C, Colás C, Pérez-Pé R, Cebrián-Pérez JA, Muiño-Blanco T. A Novel Epidermal Growth Factor-Dependent Extracellular Signal-Regulated MAP Kinase Cascade Involved in Sperm Functionality in Sheep1. Biol Reprod 2012; 87:93. [DOI: 10.1095/biolreprod.112.100073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
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12
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Soluble adenylyl cyclase activity is necessary for retinal ganglion cell survival and axon growth. J Neurosci 2012; 32:7734-44. [PMID: 22649251 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.5288-11.2012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
cAMP is a critical second messenger mediating activity-dependent neuronal survival and neurite growth. We investigated the expression and function of the soluble adenylyl cyclase (sAC, ADCY10) in CNS retinal ganglion cells (RGCs). We found sAC protein expressed in multiple RGC compartments including the nucleus, cytoplasm and axons. sAC activation increased cAMP above the level seen with transmembrane adenylate cyclase (tmAC) activation. Electrical activity and bicarbonate, both physiologic sAC activators, significantly increased survival and axon growth, whereas pharmacologic or siRNA-mediated sAC inhibition dramatically decreased RGC survival and axon growth in vitro, and survival in vivo. Conversely, RGC survival and axon growth were unaltered in RGCs from AC1/AC8 double knock-out mice or after specifically inhibiting tmACs. These data identify a novel sAC-mediated cAMP signaling pathway regulating RGC survival and axon growth, and suggest new neuroprotective or regenerative strategies based on sAC modulation.
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13
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Buck J, Levin LR. Physiological sensing of carbon dioxide/bicarbonate/pH via cyclic nucleotide signaling. SENSORS 2012; 11:2112-28. [PMID: 21544217 PMCID: PMC3085406 DOI: 10.3390/s110202112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Carbon dioxide (CO2) is produced by living organisms as a byproduct of metabolism. In physiological systems, CO2 is unequivocally linked with bicarbonate (HCO3−) and pH via a ubiquitous family of carbonic anhydrases, and numerous biological processes are dependent upon a mechanism for sensing the level of CO2, HCO3, and/or pH. The discovery that soluble adenylyl cyclase (sAC) is directly regulated by bicarbonate provided a link between CO2/HCO3/pH chemosensing and signaling via the widely used second messenger cyclic AMP. This review summarizes the evidence that bicarbonate-regulated sAC, and additional, subsequently identified bicarbonate-regulate nucleotidyl cyclases, function as evolutionarily conserved CO2/HCO3/pH chemosensors in a wide variety of physiological systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jochen Buck
- Department of Pharmacology, Weill Medical College of Cornell University, 1300 York Avenue, New York, NY 10065, USA.
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14
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Xu WM, Chen J, Chen H, Diao RY, Fok KL, Dong JD, Sun TT, Chen WY, Yu MK, Zhang XH, Tsang LL, Lau A, Shi QX, Shi QH, Huang PB, Chan HC. Defective CFTR-dependent CREB activation results in impaired spermatogenesis and azoospermia. PLoS One 2011; 6:e19120. [PMID: 21625623 PMCID: PMC3090391 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0019120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2010] [Accepted: 03/27/2011] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Cystic fibrosis (CF) is the most common life-limiting recessive genetic disease
among Caucasians caused by mutations of the cystic fibrosis transmembrane
conductance regulator (CFTR) with over 95% male patients infertile.
However, whether CFTR mutations could affect spermatogenesis and result in
azoospermia remains an open question. Here we report compromised
spermatogenesis, with significantly reduced testicular weight and sperm count,
and decreased cAMP-responsive element binding protein (CREB) expression in the
testes of CFTR knockout mice. The involvement of CFTR in
HCO3− transport and the expression of the
HCO3− sensor, soluble adenylyl cyclase (sAC),
are demonstrated for the first time in the primary culture of rat Sertoli cells.
Inhibition of CFTR or depletion of HCO3− could
reduce FSH-stimulated, sAC-dependent cAMP production and phosphorylation of
CREB, the key transcription factor in spermatogenesis. Decreased CFTR and CREB
expression are also observed in human testes with azoospermia. The present study
reveals a previously undefined role of CFTR and sAC in regulating the cAMP-CREB
signaling pathway in Sertoli cells, defect of which may result in impaired
spermatogenesis and azoospermia. Altered CFTR-sAC-cAMP-CREB functional loop may
also underline the pathogenesis of various CF-related diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen Ming Xu
- Sichuan University-The Chinese University of
Hong Kong Joint Laboratory for Reproductive Medicine, West China Institute of
Women and Children's Health, West China Second University Hospital, Sichuan
University, Chengdu, People's Republic of China
- Faculty of Medicine, School of Biomedical
Sciences, Epithelial Cell Biology Research Center, The Chinese University of
Hong Kong, Hong Kong, People's Republic of China
| | - Jing Chen
- Faculty of Medicine, School of Biomedical
Sciences, Epithelial Cell Biology Research Center, The Chinese University of
Hong Kong, Hong Kong, People's Republic of China
| | - Hui Chen
- Faculty of Medicine, School of Biomedical
Sciences, Epithelial Cell Biology Research Center, The Chinese University of
Hong Kong, Hong Kong, People's Republic of China
| | - Rui Ying Diao
- Faculty of Medicine, School of Biomedical
Sciences, Epithelial Cell Biology Research Center, The Chinese University of
Hong Kong, Hong Kong, People's Republic of China
- Shenzhen Key Lab of Male Reproduction and
Genetics, Peking University Shenzhen Hospital, Shenzhen, People's Republic
of China
| | - Kin Lam Fok
- Faculty of Medicine, School of Biomedical
Sciences, Epithelial Cell Biology Research Center, The Chinese University of
Hong Kong, Hong Kong, People's Republic of China
| | - Jian Da Dong
- Faculty of Medicine, School of Biomedical
Sciences, Epithelial Cell Biology Research Center, The Chinese University of
Hong Kong, Hong Kong, People's Republic of China
| | - Ting Ting Sun
- Faculty of Medicine, School of Biomedical
Sciences, Epithelial Cell Biology Research Center, The Chinese University of
Hong Kong, Hong Kong, People's Republic of China
| | - Wen Ying Chen
- Faculty of Medicine, School of Biomedical
Sciences, Epithelial Cell Biology Research Center, The Chinese University of
Hong Kong, Hong Kong, People's Republic of China
- Department of Reproductive Physiology,
Zhejiang Academy of Medical Sciences, Hangzhou, People's Republic of
China
| | - Mei Kuen Yu
- Faculty of Medicine, School of Biomedical
Sciences, Epithelial Cell Biology Research Center, The Chinese University of
Hong Kong, Hong Kong, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiao Hu Zhang
- Faculty of Medicine, School of Biomedical
Sciences, Epithelial Cell Biology Research Center, The Chinese University of
Hong Kong, Hong Kong, People's Republic of China
| | - Lai Ling Tsang
- Faculty of Medicine, School of Biomedical
Sciences, Epithelial Cell Biology Research Center, The Chinese University of
Hong Kong, Hong Kong, People's Republic of China
| | - Ann Lau
- Faculty of Medicine, School of Biomedical
Sciences, Epithelial Cell Biology Research Center, The Chinese University of
Hong Kong, Hong Kong, People's Republic of China
| | - Qi Xian Shi
- Department of Reproductive Physiology,
Zhejiang Academy of Medical Sciences, Hangzhou, People's Republic of
China
| | - Qing Hua Shi
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cell Genetics,
Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at Microscale, School of Life
Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, People's
Republic of China
| | - Ping Bo Huang
- Department of Biology, Hong Kong University of
Science and Technology, Hong Kong, People's Republic of China
| | - Hsiao Chang Chan
- Sichuan University-The Chinese University of
Hong Kong Joint Laboratory for Reproductive Medicine, West China Institute of
Women and Children's Health, West China Second University Hospital, Sichuan
University, Chengdu, People's Republic of China
- Faculty of Medicine, School of Biomedical
Sciences, Epithelial Cell Biology Research Center, The Chinese University of
Hong Kong, Hong Kong, People's Republic of China
- * E-mail:
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15
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Tresguerres M, Levin LR, Buck J. Intracellular cAMP signaling by soluble adenylyl cyclase. Kidney Int 2011; 79:1277-88. [PMID: 21490586 DOI: 10.1038/ki.2011.95] [Citation(s) in RCA: 156] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Soluble adenylyl cyclase (sAC) is a recently identified source of the ubiquitous second messenger cyclic adenosine 3',5' monophosphate (cAMP). sAC is distinct from the more widely studied source of cAMP, the transmembrane adenylyl cyclases (tmACs); its activity is uniquely regulated by bicarbonate anions, and it is distributed throughout the cytoplasm and in cellular organelles. Due to its unique localization and regulation, sAC has various functions in a variety of physiological systems that are distinct from tmACs. In this review, we detail the known functions of sAC, and we reassess commonly held views of cAMP signaling inside cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Tresguerres
- Marine Biology Research Division, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
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16
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Sayner SL. Emerging themes of cAMP regulation of the pulmonary endothelial barrier. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 2011; 300:L667-78. [PMID: 21335524 DOI: 10.1152/ajplung.00433.2010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The presence of excess fluid in the interstitium and air spaces of the lung presents severe restrictions to gas exchange. The pulmonary endothelial barrier regulates the flux of fluid and plasma proteins from the vascular space into the underlying tissue. The integrity of this endothelial barrier is dynamically regulated by transitions in cAMP (3',5'-cyclic adenosine monophosphate), which are synthesized in discrete subcellular compartments. Cyclic AMP generated in the subplasma membrane compartment acts through PKA and Epac (exchange protein directly activated by cAMP) to tighten cell adhesions, strengthen cortical actin, reduce actomyosin contraction, and decrease permeability. Confining cAMP within the subplasma membrane space is critical to its barrier-protective properties. When cAMP escapes the near membrane compartment and gains access to the cytosolic compartment, or when soluble adenylyl cyclases generate cAMP within the cytosolic compartment, this second messenger activates established cytosolic cAMP signaling cascades to perturb the endothelial barrier through PKA-mediated disruption of microtubules. Thus the concept of cAMP compartmentalization in endothelial barrier regulation is gaining momentum and new possibilities are being unveiled for cytosolic cAMP signaling with the emergence of the bicarbonate-regulated mammalian soluble adenylyl cyclase (sAC or AC10).
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah L Sayner
- Dept. of Cell Biology and Neuroscience, Member, Center for Lung Biology, College of Medicine, Univ. of South Alabama, Mobile, AL 36688, USA.
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17
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Townsend PD, Holliday PM, Fenyk S, Hess KC, Gray MA, Hodgson DRW, Cann MJ. Stimulation of mammalian G-protein-responsive adenylyl cyclases by carbon dioxide. J Biol Chem 2008; 284:784-91. [PMID: 19008230 PMCID: PMC2613629 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m807239200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Carbon dioxide is fundamental to the physiology of all organisms. There is
considerable interest in the precise molecular mechanisms that organisms use
to directly sense CO2. Here we demonstrate that a mammalian
recombinant G-protein-activated adenylyl cyclase and the related Rv1625c
adenylyl cyclase of Mycobacterium tuberculosis are specifically
stimulated by CO2. Stimulation occurred at physiological
concentrations of CO2 through increased kcat.
CO2 increased the affinity of enzyme for metal co-factor, but
contact with metal was not necessary as CO2 interacted directly
with apoenzyme. CO2 stimulated the activity of both
G-protein-regulated adenylyl cyclases and Rv1625c in vivo. Activation
of G-protein regulated adenylyl cyclases by CO2 gave a
corresponding increase in cAMP-response element-binding protein (CREB)
phosphorylation. Comparison of the responses of the G-protein regulated
adenylyl cyclases and the molecularly, and biochemically distinct mammalian
soluble adenylyl cyclase revealed that whereas G-protein-regulated enzymes are
responsive to CO2, the soluble adenylyl cyclase is responsive to
both CO2 and bicarbonate ion. We have, thus, identified a signaling
enzyme by which eukaryotes can directly detect and respond to fluctuating
CO2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philip D Townsend
- School of Biological and Biomedical Sciences, Durham University, Durham, UK
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18
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Farrell J, Ramos L, Tresguerres M, Kamenetsky M, Levin LR, Buck J. Somatic 'soluble' adenylyl cyclase isoforms are unaffected in Sacy tm1Lex/Sacy tm1Lex 'knockout' mice. PLoS One 2008; 3:e3251. [PMID: 18806876 PMCID: PMC2532759 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0003251] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2008] [Accepted: 09/02/2008] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Mammalian Soluble adenylyl cyclase (sAC, Adcy10, or Sacy) represents a source of the second messenger cAMP distinct from the widely studied, G protein-regulated transmembrane adenylyl cyclases. Genetic deletion of the second through fourth coding exons in Sacytm1Lex/Sacytm1Lex knockout mice results in a male sterile phenotype. The absence of any major somatic phenotype is inconsistent with the variety of somatic functions identified for sAC using pharmacological inhibitors and RNA interference. Principal Findings We now use immunological and molecular biological methods to demonstrate that somatic tissues express a previously unknown isoform of sAC, which utilizes a unique start site, and which ‘escapes’ the design of the Sacytm1Lex knockout allele. Conclusions/Significance These studies reveal increased complexity at the sAC locus, and they suggest that the known isoforms of sAC play a unique function in male germ cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeanne Farrell
- Department of Pharmacology, Weill Medical College of Cornell University, New York, New York, USA
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19
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Kaneto M, Krisfalusi M, Eddy EM, O'Brien DA, Miki K. Bicarbonate-induced phosphorylation of p270 protein in mouse sperm by cAMP-dependent protein kinase. Mol Reprod Dev 2008; 75:1045-53. [PMID: 18357561 DOI: 10.1002/mrd.20839] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Signaling by cAMP-dependent protein kinase (PKA) plays an important role in the regulation of mammalian sperm motility. However, it has not been determined how PKA signaling leads to changes in motility, and specific proteins responsible for these changes have not yet been identified as PKA substrates. Anti-phospho-(Ser/Thr) PKA substrate antibodies detected a sperm protein with a relative molecular weight of 270,000 (p270), which was phosphorylated within 1 min after incubation in a medium supporting capacitation. Phosphorylation of p270 was induced by bicarbonate or a cAMP analog, but was blocked by the PKA inhibitor H-89, indicating that p270 is likely a PKA substrate in sperm. In addition, phosphorylation of p270 was inhibited by stearated peptide st-Ht31, suggesting that p270 is phosphorylated by PKA associated with an A-kinase anchoring protein (AKAP). AKAP4 is the major fibrous sheath protein of mammalian sperm and tethers regulatory subunits of PKA to localize phosphorylation events. Phosphorylation of p270 occurred in sperm lacking AKAP4, suggesting that AKAP4 is not involved directly in the phosphorylation event. Phosphorylated p270 was enriched in fractionated sperm tails and appeared to be present in multiple compartments including a detergent-resistant membrane fraction. PKA phosphorylation of p270 within 1 min of incubation under capacitation conditions suggests that this protein may have an important role in the initial signaling events that lead to the activation and subsequent hyperactivation of sperm motility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masako Kaneto
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of North Carolina School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599-7090, USA
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20
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Nomura M, Vacquier VD. Proteins associated with soluble adenylyl cyclase in sea urchin sperm flagella. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2006; 63:582-90. [PMID: 16847896 DOI: 10.1002/cm.20147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Adenylyl cyclases (ACs) synthesize cAMP and are present in cells as transmembrane AC and soluble AC (sAC). In sperm, the cAMP produced regulates ion channels and it also activates protein kinase-A that in turn phosphorylates specific axonemal proteins to activate flagellar motility. In mammalian sperm, sAC localizes to the midpiece of flagella, whereas in sea urchin sperm sAC is along the entire flagellum. Here we show that in sea urchin sperm, sAC is complexed with proteins of the plasma membrane and axoneme. Immunoprecipitation shows that a minimum of 10 proteins is tightly associated with sAC. Mass spectrometry of peptides derived from these proteins shows them to be: axonemal dynein heavy chains 7 and 9, sperm specific Na+/H+ exchanger, cyclic nucleotide-gated ion channel, sperm specific creatine kinase, membrane bound guanylyl cyclase, cyclic GMP specific phosphodiesterase 5A, the receptor for the egg peptide speract, and alpha- and beta-tubulins. The sAC-associated proteins could be important in linking membrane signal transduction to energy utilisation in the regulation of flagellar motility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mamoru Nomura
- Center for Marine Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093-0202, USA.
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21
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Chaloupka JA, Bullock SA, Iourgenko V, Levin LR, Buck J. Autoinhibitory regulation of soluble adenylyl cyclase. Mol Reprod Dev 2006; 73:361-8. [PMID: 16250004 PMCID: PMC3644951 DOI: 10.1002/mrd.20409] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Soluble adenylyl cyclase is an evolutionarily conserved bicarbonate sensor that plays a crucial role in cAMP dependent processes that occur during mammalian fertilization. sAC protein is expressed at the highest levels in male germ cells, and is found to occur as one of two known isoforms: a truncated protein (sAC(t)) that consists almost exclusively of the two conserved catalytic domains (C1 and C2), and a full-length form (sAC(fl)) that contains an additional noncatalytic C-terminal region. Several studies suggested sAC(t) was more active than sAC(fl). We now demonstrate that the specific activity of sAC(t) is at least 10-fold higher than the specific activity of sAC(fl). Using deletion analysis and a novel genetic screen to identify activating mutations, we uncovered an autoinhibitory region just C-terminal to the C2 domain. Kinetic analysis of purified recombinant sAC revealed this autoinhibitory domain functions to lower the enzyme's V(max) without altering its affinity for substrate or regulation by any of the known modulators of sAC activity. Our results identify an additional regulatory mechanism specific to the sAC(fl) isoform.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Lonny R. Levin
- Correspondence to: Lonny R. Levin, Department of Pharmacology, Weill Medical College of Cornell University, 1300 York Avenue, New York, NY 10021.
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22
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Xie F, Garcia MA, Carlson AE, Schuh SM, Babcock DF, Jaiswal BS, Gossen JA, Esposito G, van Duin M, Conti M. Soluble adenylyl cyclase (sAC) is indispensable for sperm function and fertilization. Dev Biol 2006; 296:353-62. [PMID: 16842770 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2006.05.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 181] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2006] [Revised: 05/25/2006] [Accepted: 05/31/2006] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
We previously demonstrated that male mice deficient in the soluble adenylyl cyclase (sAC) are sterile and produce spermatozoa with deficits in progressive motility and are unable to fertilize zona-intact eggs. Here, analyses of sAC(-/-) spermatozoa provide additional insights into the functions linked to cAMP signaling. Adenylyl cyclase activity and cAMP content are greatly diminished in crude preparations of sAC(-/-) spermatozoa and are undetectable after sperm purification. HCO(3)(-) is unable to rapidly accelerate the flagellar beat or facilitate evoked Ca(2+) entry into sAC(-/-) spermatozoa. Moreover, the delayed HCO(3)(-)-dependent increases in protein tyrosine phosphorylation and hyperactivated motility, which occur late in capacitation of wild-type spermatozoa, do not develop in sAC(-/-) spermatozoa. However, sAC(-/-) sperm fertilize zona-free oocytes, indicating that gamete fusion does not require sAC. Although ATP levels are significantly reduced in sAC(-/-) sperm, cAMP-AM ester increases flagellar beat frequency, progressive motility, and alters the pattern of tyrosine phosphorylated proteins. These results indicate that sAC and cAMP coordinate cellular energy balance in wild-type sperm and that the ATP generating machinery is not operating normally in sAC(-/-) spermatozoa. These findings demonstrate that sAC plays a critical role in cAMP signaling in spermatozoa and that defective cAMP production prevents engagement of multiple components of capacitation resulting in male infertility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fang Xie
- Division of Reproductive Biology, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
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23
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Hess KC, Jones BH, Marquez B, Chen Y, Ord TS, Kamenetsky M, Miyamoto C, Zippin JH, Kopf GS, Suarez SS, Levin LR, Williams CJ, Buck J, Moss SB. The "soluble" adenylyl cyclase in sperm mediates multiple signaling events required for fertilization. Dev Cell 2005; 9:249-59. [PMID: 16054031 PMCID: PMC3082461 DOI: 10.1016/j.devcel.2005.06.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 317] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2004] [Revised: 05/11/2005] [Accepted: 06/22/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Mammalian fertilization is dependent upon a series of bicarbonate-induced, cAMP-dependent processes sperm undergo as they "capacitate," i.e., acquire the ability to fertilize eggs. Male mice lacking the bicarbonate- and calcium-responsive soluble adenylyl cyclase (sAC), the predominant source of cAMP in male germ cells, are infertile, as the sperm are immotile. Membrane-permeable cAMP analogs are reported to rescue the motility defect, but we now show that these "rescued" null sperm were not hyperactive, displayed flagellar angulation, and remained unable to fertilize eggs in vitro. These deficits uncover a requirement for sAC during spermatogenesis and/or epididymal maturation and reveal limitations inherent in studying sAC function using knockout mice. To circumvent this restriction, we identified a specific sAC inhibitor that allowed temporal control over sAC activity. This inhibitor revealed that capacitation is defined by separable events: induction of protein tyrosine phosphorylation and motility are sAC dependent while acrosomal exocytosis is not dependent on sAC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenneth C. Hess
- Department of Pharmacology Joan and Sanford Weill Medical College Graduate School of Medical Sciences of Cornell University New York, New York 10021
| | - Brian H. Jones
- Center for Research on Reproduction and Women’s Health University of Pennsylvania Medical Center Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104
| | - Becky Marquez
- Department of Biomedical Sciences College of Veterinary Medicine Cornell University Ithaca, New York 14853
| | - Yanqiu Chen
- Department of Pharmacology Joan and Sanford Weill Medical College Graduate School of Medical Sciences of Cornell University New York, New York 10021
| | - Teri S. Ord
- Center for Research on Reproduction and Women’s Health University of Pennsylvania Medical Center Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104
| | - Margarita Kamenetsky
- Department of Pharmacology Joan and Sanford Weill Medical College Graduate School of Medical Sciences of Cornell University New York, New York 10021
| | - Catarina Miyamoto
- Department of Pharmacology Joan and Sanford Weill Medical College Graduate School of Medical Sciences of Cornell University New York, New York 10021
| | - Jonathan H. Zippin
- Department of Pharmacology Joan and Sanford Weill Medical College Graduate School of Medical Sciences of Cornell University New York, New York 10021
| | - Gregory S. Kopf
- Center for Research on Reproduction and Women’s Health University of Pennsylvania Medical Center Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104
| | - Susan S. Suarez
- Department of Biomedical Sciences College of Veterinary Medicine Cornell University Ithaca, New York 14853
| | - Lonny R. Levin
- Department of Pharmacology Joan and Sanford Weill Medical College Graduate School of Medical Sciences of Cornell University New York, New York 10021
- Correspondence: (L.R.L.), (S.B.M.)
| | - Carmen J. Williams
- Center for Research on Reproduction and Women’s Health University of Pennsylvania Medical Center Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104
| | - Jochen Buck
- Department of Pharmacology Joan and Sanford Weill Medical College Graduate School of Medical Sciences of Cornell University New York, New York 10021
| | - Stuart B. Moss
- Center for Research on Reproduction and Women’s Health University of Pennsylvania Medical Center Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104
- Correspondence: (L.R.L.), (S.B.M.)
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24
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Nomura M, Beltrán C, Darszon A, Vacquier VD. A soluble adenylyl cyclase from sea urchin spermatozoa. Gene 2005; 353:231-8. [PMID: 15978750 DOI: 10.1016/j.gene.2005.04.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2005] [Revised: 03/28/2005] [Accepted: 04/27/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
A previously identified, calmodulin-binding, sea urchin sperm flagellar adenylyl cyclase (AC) was cloned and sequenced and found to be a homologue of mammalian sperm soluble adenylyl cyclase (sAC). Compared to the mammalian sAC, the sea urchin sAC (susAC) has several long amino acid insertions, some of which contain protein kinase A phosphorylation sites. The enzymatic activity of susAC shows a steep pH dependency curve, the specific activity doubling when the pH is increased from 7.0 to 7.5. This suggests that like sperm dynein ATPase, the susAC is probably activated by increases in intracellular pH occurring upon spawning into seawater and also when sperm respond to contact with the egg jelly layer. The susAC is strongly activated by manganese, but has low activity in magnesium. Gene database searches identified sAC homologues in species known to have cyclic AMP-dependent sperm motility. This implies (as shown in mouse) that susAC has a role in sperm motility, most probably through axonemal protein phosphorylation or ion channel regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mamoru Nomura
- Center for Marine Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093-0202, USA.
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25
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Kotaja N, Macho B, Sassone-Corsi P. Microtubule-independent and protein kinase A-mediated function of kinesin KIF17b controls the intracellular transport of activator of CREM in testis (ACT). J Biol Chem 2005; 280:31739-45. [PMID: 16002395 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m505971200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Kinesins are motor proteins that transport their cargos along microtubules in an ATP-dependent manner. The testis-specific kinesin KIF17b was shown to directly regulate cAMP-response element modulator (CREM)-dependent transcription by determining the subcellular localization of the activator of CREM in testis (ACT), the testis-specific coactivator of CREM in postmeiotic male germ cells. CREM is a crucial transcriptional regulator of many important genes required for spermatid maturation, as demonstrated by the complete block of sperm development at the first steps of spermiogenesis in crem-null mice. To better understand the complex regulation of postmeiotic germ cell differentiation, we further characterized the ACT-KIF17b interaction, the function of KIF17b, and the signaling pathways governing its action. In this study, we demonstrated that the abilities of KIF17b to shuttle between the nuclear and the cytoplasmic compartments and to transport ACT are neither dependent on its motor domain nor on microtubules, thus revealing a novel microtubule-independent function for kinesins. We also showed that the cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase A mediates the phosphorylation of KIF17b, and this modification is important for its subcellular localization. These results indicate that cyclic AMP signaling controls CREM-mediated transcription in male germ cells through modification of KIF17b function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noora Kotaja
- Institut de Génétique et de Biologie Moléculaire et Cellulaire, B.P. 10142, 67404 Illkirch-Strasbourg, France
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26
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Bundey RA, Insel PA. Discrete intracellular signaling domains of soluble adenylyl cyclase: camps of cAMP? Sci Signal 2004; 2004:pe19. [PMID: 15126677 DOI: 10.1126/stke.2312004pe19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
Soluble adenylyl cyclase can function in the nucleus, defining a nuclear microdomain of adenosine 3',5'-monophosphate (cAMP) signaling. Bundey and Insel discuss the evidence for discrete signaling microdomains of cAMP, including the nucleus and caveolae, and conclude that such microdomains may be defined by the localized, subcellular expression of adenylyl cyclase isoforms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard A Bundey
- Department of Pharmacology, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, San Diego, CA 92037-0636, USA.
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