Fgf19 is required for zebrafish lens and retina development

Characterization of the development of the high-acuity area of the chick retina

The fovea is a small region within the central retina that is responsible for our high acuity daylight vision. Chickens also have a high acuity area (HAA), and are one of the few species that enables studies of the mechanisms of HAA development, due to accessible embryonic tissue and methods to readily perturb gene expression. To enable such studies, we characterized the development of the chick HAA using single molecule fluorescent in situ hybridization (smFISH), along with more classical methods. We found that Fgf8 provides a molecular marker for the HAA throughout development and into adult stages, allowing studies of the cellular composition of this area over time. The radial dimension of the ganglion cell layer (GCL) was seen to be the greatest at the HAA throughout development, beginning during the period of neurogenesis, suggesting that genesis, rather than cell death, creates a higher level of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) in this area. In contrast, the HAA acquired its characteristic high density of cone photoreceptors post-hatching, which is well after the period of neurogenesis. We also confirmed that rod photoreceptors are not present in the HAA. Analyses of cell death in the developing photoreceptor layer, where rods would reside, did not show apoptotic cells, suggesting that lack of genesis, rather than death, created the "rod-free zone" (RFZ). Quantification of each cone photoreceptor subtype showed an ordered mosaic of most cone subtypes. The changes in cellular densities and cell subtypes between the developing and mature HAA provide some answers to the overarching strategy used by the retina to create this area and provide a framework for future studies of the mechanisms underlying its formation.

Aggravated visual toxicity in zebrafish larvae upon co-exposure to titanium dioxide nanoparticles and bis(2-ethylhexyl)-2,3,4,5-tetrabromophthalate

The bioavailability and toxicity of organic pollutants in aquatic organisms can be largely affected by the co-existed nanoparticles. However, the impacts of such combined exposure on the visual system remain largely unknown. Here, we systematically investigated the visual toxicity in zebrafish larvae after single or joint exposure to titanium dioxide nanoparticles (n-TiO2) and bis(2-ethylhexyl)-2,3,4,5-tetrabromophthalate (TBPH) at environmentally relevant levels. Molecular dynamics simulations revealed the enhanced transmembrane capability of the complex than the individual, which accounted for the increased bioavailability of both TBPH and n-TiO2 when combined exposure to zebrafish. Transcriptome analysis showed that co-exposure to n-TiO2 and TBPH interfered with molecular pathways related to eye lens structure and sensory perception of zebrafish. Particularly, n-TiO2 or TBPH significantly suppressed the expression of βB1-crystallin and rhodopsin in zebrafish retina and lens, which was further enhanced after co-exposure. Moreover, we detected disorganized retinal histology, stunted lens development and significant visual behavioral changes of zebrafish under co-exposure condition. The overall results suggest that combined exposure to water borne n-TiO2 and TBPH increased their bioavailability, resulted in severer damage to optic nerve development and ultimately abnormal visual behavior patterns, highlighting the higher potential health risks of co-exposure to aquatic vertebrates.

Fibroblast growth factor 19 secretion and function in perinatal development

Limited work has focused on fibroblast growth factor-19 (FGF19) secretion and function in the perinatal period. FGF19 is a potent growth factor that coordinates development of the brain, eye, inner ear, and skeletal system in the embryo, but after birth, FGF19 transitions to be an endocrine regulator of the classic pathway of hepatic bile acid synthesis. FGF19 has emerged as a mediator of metabolism and bile acid synthesis in aged animals and adults in the context of liver disease and metabolic dysfunction. FGF19 has also been shown to have systemic insulin-sensitizing and skeletal muscle hypertrophic effects when induced or supplemented at supraphysiological levels in adult rodent models. These effects could be beneficial to improve growth and nutritional outcomes in preterm infants, which are metabolically resistant to the anabolic effects of enteral nutrition. Existing clinical data on FGF19 secretion and function in the perinatal period in term and preterm infants has been equivocal. Studies in pigs show that FGF19 expression and secretion are upregulated with gestational age and point to molecular and endocrine factors that may be involved. Work focused on FGF19 in pediatric diseases suggests that augmentation of FGF19 secretion by activation of gut FXR signaling is associated with benefits in diseases such as short bowel syndrome, parenteral nutrition-associated liver disease, and biliary atresia. Future work should focus on characterization of FGF19 secretion and the mechanism underpinning the transition of FGF19 function as an embryological growth factor to metabolic and bile acid regulator.

Increased Circulating Cortisol After Vaginal Birth Is Associated With Increased FGF19 Secretion in Neonatal Pigs

The influence of birth modality (scheduled cesarean or spontaneous vaginal) on the development of the newborn has been a source of controversy in neonatology. The impact of cesarean vs vaginal birth on the development of bile acid and fibroblast growth factor 19 (FGF19) signaling is unknown. Our aim was to determine the effect of birth modality and gestational age (preterm vs term) on plasma hormone levels, bile acid pool distribution, expression of genes in the bile acid-FXR-FGF19 pathway, and plasma levels of FGF19 at birth and on day 3 of life in neonatal pigs. Four sows underwent cesarean delivery on gestation day 105 (n = 2) and 114 (n = 2; term = 115 days), and 2 additional sows were allowed to farrow at term (gestation days 112 and 118). Piglets were euthanized at birth (Term-Vaginal n = 6; Term-Cesarean n = 8; Preterm n = 10) for tissue and blood collection, and the remaining pigs received total parenteral nutrition then were fed enterally on day 3 (Term-Vaginal n = 8; Term-Cesarean n = 10; Preterm n = 8), before blood and tissue were collected. Piglets born vaginally had a markedly (30-fold) higher plasma FGF19 at birth than term pigs born via cesarean delivery, and 70-fold higher than preterm pigs (P < 0.001). However, distal ileum FGF19 gene expression was similar in all groups (P > 0.05). Plasma FGF19 positively correlated with plasma cortisol (r = 0.58; P < 0.05) and dexamethasone treatment increased ileal FGF19 expression in cultured pig tissue explants and human enteroids. Our findings suggest that exposure to maternal or endogenous glucocorticoids in the perinatal period may upregulate the development of the bile acid-FGF19 pathway.

Mechanistic Insights into Axenfeld-Rieger Syndrome from Zebrafish foxc1 and pitx2 Mutants

Axenfeld-Rieger syndrome (ARS) encompasses a group of developmental disorders that affect the anterior segment of the eye, as well as systemic developmental defects in some patients. Malformation of the ocular anterior segment often leads to secondary glaucoma, while some patients also present with cardiovascular malformations, craniofacial and dental abnormalities and additional periumbilical skin. Genes that encode two transcription factors, FOXC1 and PITX2, account for almost half of known cases, while the genetic lesions in the remaining cases remain unresolved. Given the genetic similarity between zebrafish and humans, as well as robust antisense inhibition and gene editing technologies available for use in these animals, loss of function zebrafish models for ARS have been created and shed light on the mechanism(s) whereby mutations in these two transcription factors cause such a wide array of developmental phenotypes. This review summarizes the published phenotypes in zebrafish foxc1 and pitx2 loss of function models and discusses possible mechanisms that may be used to target pharmaceutical development and therapeutic interventions.

Klotho Protein and Cardio-Vascular System

Klotho protein affects a number of metabolic pathways essential for pathogenesis of cardio-vascular diseases and their prevention. It inhibits lipid peroxidation and inflammation, as well as prevents endothelial injury and calcification of blood vessels. Klotho decreases rigidity of blood vessels and suppresses development of the heart fibrosis. Low level of its expression is associated with a number of diseases. Cardioprotective effect of klotho is based on its ability to interact with multiple receptors and ion channels. Being a pleiotropic protein, klotho could be a useful target for therapeutic intervention in the treatment of cardio-vascular diseases. In this review we present data on pharmaceuticals that stimulate klotho expression and suggest some promising research directions.

Thyroid Hormones Regulate Goblet Cell Differentiation and Fgf19-Fgfr4 Signaling

Hypothyroidism is a common pathological condition characterized by insufficient activity of the thyroid hormones (THs), thyroxine (T4), and 3,5,3'-triiodothyronine (T3), in the whole body or in specific tissues. Hypothyroidism is associated with inadequate development of the intestine as well as gastrointestinal diseases. We used a zebrafish model of hypothyroidism to identify and characterize TH-modulated genes and cellular pathways controlling intestine development. In the intestine of hypothyroid juveniles and adults, the number of mucus-secreting goblet cells was reduced, and this phenotype could be rescued by T3 treatment. Transcriptome profiling revealed dozens of differentially expressed genes in the intestine of hypothyroid adults compared to controls. Notably, the expression of genes encoding to Fgf19 and its receptor Fgfr4 was markedly increased in the intestine of hypothyroid adults, and treatment with T3 normalized it. Blocking fibroblast growth factor (FGF) signaling, using an inducible dominant-negative Fgfr transgenic line, rescued the number of goblet cells in hypothyroid adults. These results show that THs inhibit the Fgf19-Fgfr4 signaling pathway, which is associated with inhibition of goblet cell differentiation in hypothyroidism. Both the TH and Fgf19-Fgfr4 signaling pathways can be pharmaceutical targets for the treatment of TH-related gastrointestinal diseases.

Knockdown of Foxg1 in Sox9+ supporting cells increases the trans-differentiation of supporting cells into hair cells in the neonatal mouse utricle

Foxg1 plays important roles in regeneration of hair cell (HC) in the cochlea of neonatal mouse. Here, we used Sox9-CreER to knock down Foxg1 in supporting cells (SCs) in the utricle in order to investigate the role of Foxg1 in HC regeneration in the utricle. We found Sox9 an ideal marker of utricle SCs and bred Sox9^CreER/+Foxg1^loxp/loxp mice to conditionally knock down Foxg1 in utricular SCs. Conditional knockdown (cKD) of Foxg1 in SCs at postnatal day one (P01) led to increased number of HCs at P08. These regenerated HCs had normal characteristics, and could survive to at least P30. Lineage tracing showed that a significant portion of newly regenerated HCs originated from SCs in Foxg1 cKD mice compared to the mice subjected to the same treatment, which suggested SCs trans-differentiate into HCs in the Foxg1 cKD mouse utricle. After neomycin treatment in vitro, more HCs were observed in Foxg1 cKD mice utricle compared to the control group. Together, these results suggest that Foxg1 cKD in utricular SCs may promote HC regeneration by inducing trans-differentiation of SCs. This research therefore provides theoretical basis for the effects of Foxg1 in trans-differentiation of SCs and regeneration of HCs in the mouse utricle.

Pax6 organizes the anterior eye segment by guiding two distinct neural crest waves

Cranial neural crest (NC) contributes to the developing vertebrate eye. By multidimensional, quantitative imaging, we traced the origin of the ocular NC cells to two distinct NC populations that differ in the maintenance of sox10 expression, Wnt signalling, origin, route, mode and destination of migration. The first NC population migrates to the proximal and the second NC cell group populates the distal (anterior) part of the eye. By analysing zebrafish pax6a/b compound mutants presenting anterior segment dysgenesis, we demonstrate that Pax6a/b guide the two NC populations to distinct proximodistal locations. We further provide evidence that the lens whose formation is pax6a/b-dependent and lens-derived TGFβ signals contribute to the building of the anterior segment. Taken together, our results reveal multiple roles of Pax6a/b in the control of NC cells during development of the anterior segment.

Retinal inputs signal astrocytes to recruit interneurons into visual thalamus

Inhibitory interneurons comprise a fraction of the total neurons in the visual thalamus but are essential for sharpening receptive field properties and improving contrast-gain of retinogeniculate transmission. During early development, these interneurons undergo long-range migration from germinal zones, a process regulated by the innervation of the visual thalamus by retinal ganglion cells. Here, using transcriptomic approaches, we identified a motogenic cue, fibroblast growth factor 15 (FGF15), whose expression in the visual thalamus is regulated by retinal input. Targeted deletion of functional FGF15 in mice led to a reduction in thalamic GABAergic interneurons similar to that observed in the absence of retinal input. This loss may be attributed, at least in part, to misrouting of interneurons into nonvisual thalamic nuclei. Unexpectedly, expression analysis revealed that FGF15 is generated by thalamic astrocytes and not retino-recipient neurons. Thus, these data show that retinal inputs signal through astrocytes to direct the long-range recruitment of interneurons into the visual thalamus.

Loss of foxc1 in zebrafish reduces optic nerve size and cell number in the retinal ganglion cell layer

Mutation of FOXC1 causes Axenfeld-Rieger Syndrome (ARS) with early onset or congenital glaucoma. We assessed retinal ganglion cell (RGC) number in zebrafish due to CRISPR-mediated mutation and antisense inhibition of two-forkhead box transcription factors, foxc1a and foxc1b. These genes represent duplicated homologues of human FOXC1. Using a CRISPR induced null mutation in foxc1b, in combination with antisense inhibition of foxc1a, we demonstrate reduced cell number in the retinal ganglion cell layer of developing zebrafish eyes. As early as 5 days post fertilization (dpf), fewer RGCs are found in foxc1b homozygous mutants injected with foxc1a morpholinos, and a thinner optic nerve results. Our data illustrates that foxc1 is required for the expression of atonal homolog 7 (atoh7), a gene that is necessary for RGC differentiation. As markers of differentiated RGCs (pou4f2) are downregulated in foxc1b-/- mutants injected with foxc1a morpholinos and no cell death is observed, our results are consistent with defects in the differentiation of RGCs leading to reduced cell number, as opposed to increased cell death of RGCs or off targets effects of morpholino injection. Our zebrafish model demonstrates that aberrant regulation of RGC number could act in concert with other known glaucoma risk factors to influence the development of congenital and early onset glaucoma due to FOXC1 mutation.

Fibroblast Growth Factor 15/19: From Basic Functions to Therapeutic Perspectives

Discovered 20 years ago, fibroblast growth factor (FGF)19, and its mouse ortholog FGF15, were the first members of a new subfamily of FGFs able to act as hormones. During fetal life, FGF15/19 is involved in organogenesis, affecting the development of the ear, eye, heart, and brain. At adulthood, FGF15/19 is mainly produced by the ileum, acting on the liver to repress hepatic bile acid synthesis and promote postprandial nutrient partitioning. In rodents, pharmacologic doses of FGF19 induce the same antiobesity and antidiabetic actions as FGF21, with these metabolic effects being partly mediated by the brain. However, activation of hepatocyte proliferation by FGF19 has long been a challenge to its therapeutic use. Recently, genetic reengineering of the molecule has resolved this issue. Despite a global overlap in expression pattern and function, murine FGF15 and human FGF19 exhibit several differences in terms of regulation, molecular structure, signaling, and biological properties. As most of the knowledge originates from the use of FGF19 in murine models, differences between mice and humans in the biology of FGF15/19 have to be considered for a successful translation from bench to bedside. This review summarizes the basic knowledge concerning FGF15/19 in mice and humans, with a special focus on regulation of production, morphogenic properties, hepatocyte growth, bile acid homeostasis, as well as actions on glucose, lipid, and energy homeostasis. Moreover, implications and therapeutic perspectives concerning FGF19 in human diseases (including obesity, type 2 diabetes, hepatic steatosis, biliary disorders, and cancer) are also discussed.

Evolutionary conservation and conversion of Foxg1 function in brain development

Among the forkhead box protein family, Foxg1 is a unique transcription factor that plays pleiotropic and non-redundant roles in vertebrate brain development. The emergence of the telencephalon at the rostral end of the neural tube and its subsequent expansion that is mediated by Foxg1 was a key reason for the vertebrate brain to acquire higher order information processing, where Foxg1 is repetitively used in the sequential events of telencephalic development to control multi-steps of brain circuit formation ranging from cell cycle control to neuronal differentiation in a clade- and species-specific manner. The objective of this review is to discuss how the evolutionary changes in cis- and trans-regulatory network that is mediated by a single transcription factor has contributed to determining the fundamental vertebrate brain structure and its divergent roles in instructing species-specific neuronal circuitry and functional specialization.

Prox1 and fibroblast growth factor receptors form a novel regulatory loop controlling lens fiber differentiation and gene expression

Lens epithelial cells differentiate into lens fibers (LFs) in response to a fibroblast growth factor (FGF) gradient. This cell fate decision requires the transcription factor Prox1, which has been hypothesized to promote cell cycle exit in differentiating LF cells. However, we find that conditional deletion of Prox1 from mouse lenses results in a failure in LF differentiation despite maintenance of normal cell cycle exit. Instead, RNA-seq demonstrated that Prox1 functions as a global regulator of LF cell gene expression. Intriguingly, Prox1 also controls the expression of fibroblast growth factor receptors (FGFRs) and can bind to their promoters, correlating with decreased downstream signaling through MAPK and AKT in Prox1 mutant lenses. Further, culturing rat lens explants in FGF increased their expression of Prox1, and this was attenuated by the addition of inhibitors of MAPK. Together, these results describe a novel feedback loop required for lens differentiation and morphogenesis, whereby Prox1 and FGFR signaling interact to mediate LF differentiation in response to FGF.

Is fibroblast growth factor receptor 4 a suitable target of cancer therapy?

Fibroblast growth factors (FGF) and their tyrosine kinase receptors (FGFR) support cell proliferation, survival and migration during embryonic development, organogenesis and tissue maintenance and their deregulation is frequently observed in cancer development and progression. Consequently, increasing efforts are focusing on the development of strategies to target FGF/FGFR signaling for cancer therapy. Among the FGFRs the family member FGFR4 is least well understood and differs from FGFRs1-3 in several aspects. Importantly, FGFR4 deletion does not lead to an embryonic lethal phenotype suggesting the possibility that its inhibition in cancer therapy might not cause grave adverse effects. In addition, the FGFR4 kinase domain differs sufficiently from those of FGFRs1-3 to permit development of highly specific inhibitors. The oncogenic impact of FGFR4, however, is not undisputed, as the FGFR4-mediated hormonal effects of several FGF ligands may also constitute a tissue-protective tumor suppressor activity especially in the liver. Therefore it is the purpose of this review to summarize all relevant aspects of FGFR4 physiology and pathophysiology and discuss the options of targeting this receptor for cancer therapy.

Mutual antagonism of the paired-type homeobox genes, vsx2 and dmbx1, regulates retinal progenitor cell cycle exit upstream of ccnd1 expression

Understanding the mechanisms that regulate the transition between the proliferative and a post-mitotic state of retinal progenitor cells (RPCs) is key to advancing our knowledge of retinal growth and maturation. In the present study we determined that during zebrafish embryonic retinal neurogenesis, two paired-type homeobox genes - vsx2 and dmbx1 - function in a mutually antagonistic manner. We demonstrate that vsx2 gene expression requires active Fgf signaling and that this in turn suppresses dmbx1 expression and maintains cells in an undifferentiated, proliferative RPC state. This vsx2-dependent RPC state can be prolonged cell-autonomously by knockdown of dmbx1, or it can be suppressed prematurely by the over-expression of dmbx1, which we show can inhibit vsx2 expression and lead to precocious neuronal differentiation. dmbx1 loss of function also results in altered expression of canonical cell cycle genes, and in particular up-regulation of ccnd1, which correlates with our previous finding of a prolonged RPC cell cycle. By knocking down ccnd1 and dmbx1 simultaneously, we show that RPCs can overcome this phenotype to exit the cell cycle on time and differentiate normally into retinal neurons. Collectively, our data provide novel insight into the mechanism that enables RPCs to exit the cell cycle through a previously unrecognized antagonistic interaction of two paired-type homeobox genes that are central regulators of an Fgf-vsx2-dmbx1-ccnd1 signaling axis.

Bmp4 from the optic vesicle specifies murine retina formation

Previous studies of mouse embryos concluded that after the optic vesicle evaginates from the ventral forebrain and contacts the surface ectoderm, signals from the ectoderm specify the distal region of the optic vesicle to become retina and signals from the optic vesicle induce the lens. Germline deletion of Bmp4 resulted in failure of lens formation. We performed conditional deletion of Bmp4 from the optic vesicle to test the function of Bmp4 in murine eye development. The optic vesicle evaginated normally and contacted the surface ectoderm. Lens induction did not occur. The optic cup failed to form and the expression of retina-specific genes decreased markedly in the distal optic vesicle. Instead, cells in the prospective retina expressed genes characteristic of the retinal pigmented epithelium. We conclude that Bmp4 is required for retina specification in mice. In the absence of Bmp4, formation of the retinal pigmented epithelium is the default differentiation pathway of the optic vesicle. Differences in the signaling pathways required for specification of the retina and retinal pigmented epithelium in chicken and mouse embryos suggest major changes in signaling during the evolution of the vertebrate eye.

Modeling human retinal development with patient-specific induced pluripotent stem cells reveals multiple roles for visual system homeobox 2

Human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs) have been shown to differentiate along the retinal lineage in a manner that mimics normal mammalian development. Under certain culture conditions, hiPSCs form optic vesicle-like structures (OVs), which contain proliferating progenitors capable of yielding all neural retina (NR) cell types over time. Such observations imply conserved roles for regulators of retinogenesis in hiPSC-derived cultures and the developing embryo. However, whether and to what extent this assumption holds true has remained largely uninvestigated. We examined the role of a key NR transcription factor, visual system homeobox 2 (VSX2), using hiPSCs derived from a patient with microphthalmia caused by an R200Q mutation in the VSX2 homeodomain region. No differences were noted between (R200Q)VSX2 and sibling control hiPSCs prior to OV generation. Thereafter, (R200Q)VSX2 hiPSC-OVs displayed a significant growth deficit compared to control hiPSC-OVs, as well as increased production of retinal pigmented epithelium at the expense of NR cell derivatives. Furthermore, (R200Q)VSX2 hiPSC-OVs failed to produce bipolar cells, a distinctive feature previously observed in Vsx2 mutant mice. (R200Q)VSX2 hiPSC-OVs also demonstrated delayed photoreceptor maturation, which could be overcome via exogenous expression of wild-type VSX2 at early stages of retinal differentiation. Finally, RNAseq analysis on isolated hiPSC-OVs implicated key transcription factors and extracellular signaling pathways as potential downstream effectors of VSX2-mediated gene regulation. Our results establish hiPSC-OVs as versatile model systems to study retinal development at stages not previously accessible in humans and support the bona fide nature of hiPSC-OV-derived retinal progeny.

FGF signalling specifies haematopoietic stem cells through its regulation of somitic Notch signalling

Hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) derive from hemogenic endothelial cells of the primitive dorsal aorta (DA) during vertebrate embryogenesis. The molecular mechanisms governing this unique endothelial to hematopoietic transition remain unclear. Here, we demonstrate a novel requirement for fibroblast growth factor (FGF) signaling in HSC emergence. This requirement is non-cell-autonomous, and acts within the somite to bridge the Wnt and Notch signaling pathways. We previously demonstrated that Wnt16 regulates the somitic expression of two Notch ligands, deltaC (dlc) and deltaD (dld), whose combined function is required for HSC fate. How Wnt16 connects to Notch function has remained an open question. Our current studies demonstrate that FGF signaling, via FGF receptor 4 (Fgfr4), mediates a signal transduction pathway between Wnt16 and Dlc, but not Dld, to regulate HSC specification. Our findings demonstrate that FGF signaling acts as a key molecular relay within the developmental HSC niche to instruct HSC fate.

Fgfr signaling is required as the early eye field forms to promote later patterning and morphogenesis of the eye

BACKGROUND

A major step in eye morphogenesis is the transition from optic vesicle to optic cup, which occurs as a ventral groove forms along the base of the optic vesicle. A ventral gap in the eye, or coloboma, results when this groove fails to close. Extrinsic signals, such as fibroblast growth factors (Fgfs), play a critical role in the development and morphogenesis of the vertebrate eye. Whether these extrinsic signals are required throughout eye development, or within a defined critical period remains an unanswered question.

RESULTS

Here we show that an early Fgf signal, required as the eye field is first emerging, drives eye morphogenesis. In addition to triggering coloboma, inhibition of this early Fgf signal results in defects in dorsal-ventral patterning of the neural retina, particularly in the nasal retina, and development of the periocular mesenchyme (POM). These processes are unaffected by inhibition of Fgfr signaling at later time points.

CONCLUSIONS

We propose that Fgfs act within an early critical period as the eye field forms to promote development of the neural retina and POM, which subsequently drive eye morphogenesis.

The ETS transcription factor Etv1 mediates FGF signaling to initiate proneural gene expression during Xenopus laevis retinal development

Fibroblast growth factor signaling plays a significant role in the developing eye, regulating both patterning and neurogenesis. Members of the Pea3/Etv4-subfamily of ETS-domain transcription factors (Etv1, Etv4, and Etv5) are transcriptional activators that are downstream targets of FGF/MAPK signaling, but whether they are required for eye development is unknown. We show that in the developing Xenopus laevis retina, etv1 is transiently expressed at the onset of retinal neurogenesis. We found that etv1 is not required for eye specification, but is required for the expression of atonal-related proneural bHLH transcription factors, and is also required for retinal neuron differentiation. Using transgenic reporters we show that the distal atoh7 enhancer, which is required for the initiation of atoh7 expression in the Xenopus retina, is responsive to both FGF signaling and etv1 expression. Thus, we conclude that Etv1 acts downstream of FGF signaling to regulate the initiation of neurogenesis in the Xenopus retina.

Bcl6a function is required during optic cup formation to prevent p53-dependent apoptosis and colobomata

Mutations in BCOR (Bcl6 corepressor) are found in patients with oculo-facio-cardio-dental (OFCD) syndrome, a congenital disorder affecting visual system development, and loss-of-function studies in zebrafish and Xenopus demonstrate a role for Bcor during normal optic cup development in preventing colobomata. The mechanism whereby BCOR functions during eye development to prevent colobomata is not known, but in other contexts it serves as a transcriptional corepressor that potentiates transcriptional repression by B cell leukemia/lymphoma 6 (BCL6). Here, we have explored the function of the zebrafish ortholog of Bcl6, Bcl6a, during eye development, and our results demonstrate that Bcl6a, like Bcor, is required to prevent colobomata during optic cup formation. Our data demonstrate that Bcl6a acts downstream of Vax1 and Vax2, known regulators of ventral optic cup formation and choroid fissure closure, and that bcl6a is a direct target of Vax2. Together, this regulatory network functions to repress p53 expression and thereby suppress apoptosis in the developing optic cup. Furthermore, our data demonstrate that Bcl6a functions cooperatively with Bcor, Rnf2 and Hdac1 in a common gene regulatory network that acts to repress p53 and prevent colobomata. Together, these data support a model in which p53-dependent apoptosis needs to be tightly regulated for normal optic cup formation and that Bcl6a, Bcor, Rnf2 and Hdac1 activities mediate this regulation.

Fibroblast growth factor receptor 2c signaling is required for intestinal cell differentiation in zebrafish

Background

There are four cell lineages derived from intestinal stem cells that are located at the crypt and villus in the mammalian intestine the non-secretory absorptive enterocytes, and the secretory cells, which include mucous-secreting goblet cells, regulatory peptide-secreting enteroendocrine cells and antimicrobial peptide-secreting Paneth cells. Although fibroblast growth factor (Fgf) signaling is important for cell proliferation and differentiation in various tissues, its role in intestinal differentiation is less well understood.

Methodology/Principal Findings

We used a loss of function approach to investigate the importance of Fgf signaling in intestinal cell differentiation in zebrafish; abnormal differentiation of goblet cells was observed when Fgf signaling was inhibited using SU5402 or in the Tg(hsp70ldnfgfr1-EGFP) transgenic line. We identified Fgfr2c as an important receptor for cell differentiation. The number of goblet cells and enteroendocrine cells was reduced in fgfr2c morphants. In addition to secretory cells, enterocyte differentiation was also disrupted in fgfr2c morphants. Furthermore, proliferating cells were increased in the morphants. Interestingly, the loss of fgfr2c expression repressed secretory cell differentiation and increased cell proliferation in the mib^ta52b mutant that had defective Notch signaling.

Conclusions/Significance

In conclusion, we found that Fgfr2c signaling derived from mesenchymal cells is important for regulating the differentiation of zebrafish intestine epithelial cells by promoting cell cycle exit. The results of Fgfr2c knockdown in mib^ta52b mutants indicated that Fgfr2c signaling is required for intestinal cell differentiation. These findings provide new evidences that Fgf signaling is required for the differentiation of intestinal cells in the zebrafish developing gut.

Matrix metalloproteinase 14 in the zebrafish: an eye on retinal and retinotectal development

BACKGROUND

Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are members of the metzincin superfamily of proteinases that cleave structural elements of the extracellular matrix and many molecules involved in signal transduction. Although there is evidence that MMPs promote the proper development of retinotectal projections, the nature and working mechanisms of specific MMPs in retinal development remain to be elucidated. Here, we report a role for zebrafish Mmp14a, one of the two zebrafish paralogs of human MMP14, in retinal neurogenesis and retinotectal development.

RESULTS

Whole mount in situ hybridization and immunohistochemical stainings for Mmp14a in developing zebrafish embryos reveal expression in the optic tectum, in the optic nerve and in defined retinal cell populations, including retinal ganglion cells (RGCs). Furthermore, Mmp14a loss-of-function results in perturbed retinoblast cell cycle kinetics and consequently, in a delayed retinal neurogenesis, differentiation and lamination. These Mmp14a-dependent retinal defects lead to microphthalmia and a significantly reduced innervation of the optic tectum (OT) by RGC axons. Mmp14b, on the contrary, does not appear to alter retinal neurogenesis or OT innervation. As mammalian MMP14 is known to act as an efficient MMP2-activator, we also explored and found a functional link and a possible co-involvement of Mmp2 and Mmp14a in zebrafish retinotectal development.

CONCLUSION

Both the Mmp14a expression in the developing visual system and the Mmp14a loss-of-function phenotype illustrate a critical role for Mmp14a activity in retinal and retinotectal development.

Contribution of growth differentiation factor 6-dependent cell survival to early-onset retinal dystrophies

Retinal dystrophies are predominantly caused by mutations affecting the visual phototransduction system and cilia, with few genes identified that function to maintain photoreceptor survival. We reasoned that growth factors involved with early embryonic retinal development would represent excellent candidates for such diseases. Here we show that mutations in the transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) ligand Growth Differentiation Factor 6, which specifies the dorso-ventral retinal axis, contribute to Leber congenital amaurosis. Furthermore, deficiency of gdf6 results in photoreceptor degeneration, so demonstrating a connection between Gdf6 signaling and photoreceptor survival. In addition, in both murine and zebrafish mutant models, we observe retinal apoptosis, a characteristic feature of human retinal dystrophies. Treatment of gdf6-deficient zebrafish embryos with a novel aminopropyl carbazole, P7C3, rescued the retinal apoptosis without evidence of toxicity. These findings implicate for the first time perturbed TGF-β signaling in the genesis of retinal dystrophies, support the study of related morphogenetic genes for comparable roles in retinal disease and may offer additional therapeutic opportunities for genetically heterogeneous disorders presently only treatable with gene therapy.

New insights into the mechanism of lens development using zebra fish

On the basis of recent advances in molecular biology, genetics, and live-embryo imaging, direct comparisons between zebra fish and human lens development are being made. The zebra fish has numerous experimental advantages for investigation of fundamental biomedical problems that are often best studied in the lens. The physical characteristics of visible light can account for the highly coordinated cell differentiation during formation of a beautifully transparent, refractile, symmetric optical element, the biological lens. The accessibility of the zebra fish lens for direct investigation during rapid development will result in new knowledge about basic functional mechanisms of epithelia-mesenchymal transitions, cell fate, cell-matrix interactions, cytoskeletal interactions, cytoplasmic crowding, membrane transport, cell adhesion, cell signaling, and metabolic specialization. The lens is well known as a model for characterization of cell and molecular aging. We review the recent advances in understanding vertebrate lens development conducted with zebra fish.

Pax6: a multi-level regulator of ocular development

Eye development has been a paradigm for the study of organogenesis, from the demonstration of lens induction through epithelial tissue morphogenesis, to neuronal specification and differentiation. The transcription factor Pax6 has been shown to play a key role in each of these processes. Pax6 is required for initiation of developmental pathways, patterning of epithelial tissues, activation of tissue-specific genes and interaction with other regulatory pathways. Herein we examine the data accumulated over the last few decades from extensive analyses of biochemical modules and genetic manipulation of the Pax6 gene. Specifically, we describe the regulation of Pax6's expression pattern, the protein's DNA-binding properties, and its specific roles and mechanisms of action at all stages of lens and retinal development. Pax6 functions at multiple levels to integrate extracellular information and execute cell-intrinsic differentiation programs that culminate in the specification and differentiation of a distinct ocular lineage.

Neucrin, a novel secreted antagonist of canonical Wnt signaling, plays roles in developing neural tissues in zebrafish

Wnt signaling plays crucial roles in neural development. We previously identified Neucrin, a neural-specific secreted antagonist of canonical Wnt/β-catenin signaling, in humans and mice. Neucrin has one cysteine-rich domain, in which the positions of 10 cysteine residues are similar to those in the second cysteine-rich domain of Dickkopfs, secreted Wnt antagonists. Here, we have identified zebrafish neucrin to understand its roles in vivo. Zebrafish Neucrin also has one cysteine-rich domain, which is significantly similar to that of mouse Neucrin. Zebrafish neucrin was also predominantly expressed in developing neural tissues. To examine roles of neucrin in neural development, we analyzed neucrin knockdown embryos. Neural development in zebrafish embryos was impaired by the knockdown of neucrin. The knockdown of neucrin caused increased expression of the Wnt/β-catenin target genes. In contrast, overexpression of neucrin reduced the expression of the Wnt/β-catenin target genes. The knockdown of neucrin affected specification of dorsal region in the midbrain and hindbrain. The knockdown of neucrin also suppressed neuronal differentiation and caused increased cell proliferation and apoptosis in developing neural tissues. Neucrin is a unique secreted Wnt antagonist that is predominantly expressed in developing neural tissues and plays roles in neural development in zebrafish.

A variant of fibroblast growth factor receptor 2 (Fgfr2) regulates left-right asymmetry in zebrafish

Many organs in vertebrates are left-right asymmetrical located. For example, liver is at the right side and stomach is at the left side in human. Fibroblast growth factor (Fgf) signaling is important for left-right asymmetry. To investigate the roles of Fgfr2 signaling in zebrafish left-right asymmetry, we used splicing blocking morpholinos to specifically block the splicing of fgfr2b and fgfr2c variants, respectively. We found that the relative position of the liver and the pancreas were disrupted in fgfr2c morphants. Furthermore, the left-right asymmetry of the heart became random. Expression pattern of the laterality controlling genes, spaw and pitx2c, also became random in the morphants. Furthermore, lefty1 was not expressed in the posterior notochord, indicating that the molecular midline barrier had been disrupted. It was also not expressed in the brain diencephalon. Kupffer's vesicle (KV) size became smaller in fgfr2c morphants. Furthermore, KV cilia were shorter in fgfr2c morphants. We conclude that the fgfr2c isoform plays an important role in the left-right asymmetry during zebrafish development.

Fgf20b is required for the ectomesenchymal fate establishment of cranial neural crest cells in zebrafish

In cranial skeletal development, the establishment of the ectomesenchymal lineage within the cranial neural crest is of great significance. Fgfs are polypeptide growth factors with diverse functions in development and metabolism. Fgf20b knockdown zebrafish embryos showed dysplastic neurocranial and pharyngeal cartilages. Ectomesenchymal cells from cranial neural crest cells were significantly decreased in Fgf20b knockdown embryos, but cranial neural crest cells with a non-ectomesnchymal fate were increased. However, the proliferation and apoptosis of cranial neural crest cells were essentially unchanged. Fgfr1 knockdown embryos also showed dysplastic neurocranial and pharyngeal cartilages. The present findings indicate that Fgf20b is required for ectomesenchymal fate establishment via the activation of Fgfr1 in zebrafish.

Targeting fibroblast-growth-factor-receptor-dependent signaling for cancer therapy

INTRODUCTION

Fibroblast growth factors (FGF) exert a combination of biological effects that contribute to four of the six essential hallmarks of cancer. It is no surprise that FGF-dependent signaling has increasingly moved to the center of cancer therapy research during the past decade. This is illustrated by the large number of publications focusing on various aspects of this theme that have been published in the past 5 years.

AREAS COVERED

Information from these sources as well as ongoing work from the authors' groups is used to outline the physiological functions of FGF signaling and to highlight how the high oncogenic effects of deregulated FGFs and FGFRs derive from their physiological functions. The biological effect of deregulated FGFR signaling in malignant diseases is described and the current state of therapeutic targeting of FGFR is summarized.

EXPERT OPINION

Strategies for targeting FGFR-signaling for cancer therapy are very promising, but need to be carefully developed based on the physiological roles of FGF signaling. Preventive measures may be necessary for protection from FGF-related side effects. Combined targeting of several receptor tyrosine kinases or combination with other therapies may be a useful way of avoiding or ameliorating side effects. FGF-related markers of prognosis and therapy response still need to be investigated.

The function of FGF signaling in the lens placode

Previous studies suggested that FGF signaling is important for lens formation. However, the times at which FGFs act to promote lens formation, the FGFs that are involved, the cells that secrete them and the mechanisms by which FGF signaling may promote lens formation are not known. We found that transcripts encoding several FGF ligands and the four classical FGF receptors are detectable in the lens-forming ectoderm at the time of lens induction. Conditional deletion of Fgfr1 and Fgfr2 from this tissue resulted in the formation of small lens rudiments that soon degenerated. Lens placodes lacking Fgfr1 and 2 were thinner than in wild-type embryos. Deletion of Fgfr2 increased cell death from the initiation of placode formation and concurrent deletion of Fgfr1 enhanced this phenotype. Fgfr1/2 conditional knockout placode cells expressed lower levels of proteins known to be regulated by FGF receptor signaling, but proteins known to be important for lens formation were present at normal levels in the remaining placode cells, including the transcription factors Pax6, Sox2 and FoxE3 and the lens-preferred protein αA-crystallin. Previous studies identified a genetic interaction between BMP and FGF signaling in lens formation and conditional deletion of Bmpr1a caused increased cell death in the lens placode, resulting in the formation of smaller lenses. In the present study, conditional deletion of both Bmpr1a and Fgfr2 increased cell death beyond that seen in Fgfr2(CKO) placodes and prevented lens formation. These results suggest that the primary role of autocrine or paracrine FGF signaling is to provide essential survival signals to lens placode cells. Because apoptosis was already increased at the onset of placode formation in Fgfr1/2 conditional knockout placode cells, FGF signaling was functionally absent during the period of lens induction by the optic vesicle. Since the expression of proteins required for lens formation was not altered in the knockout placode cells, we can conclude that FGF signaling from the optic vesicle is not required for lens induction.

Toward a better understanding of human eye disease insights from the zebrafish, Danio rerio

Visual impairment and blindness is widespread across the human population, and the development of therapies for ocular pathologies is of high priority. The zebrafish represents a valuable model organism for studying human ocular disease; it is utilized in eye research to understand underlying developmental processes, to identify potential causative genes for human disorders, and to develop therapies. Zebrafish eyes are similar in morphology, physiology, gene expression, and function to human eyes. Furthermore, zebrafish are highly amenable to laboratory research. This review outlines the use of zebrafish as a model for human ocular diseases such as colobomas, glaucoma, cataracts, photoreceptor degeneration, as well as dystrophies of the cornea and retinal pigmented epithelium.

Research resource: Comprehensive expression atlas of the fibroblast growth factor system in adult mouse

Although members of the fibroblast growth factor (FGF) family and their receptors have well-established roles in embryogenesis, their contributions to adult physiology remain relatively unexplored. Here, we use real-time quantitative PCR to determine the mRNA expression patterns of all 22 FGFs, the seven principal FGF receptors (FGFRs), and the three members of the Klotho family of coreceptors in 39 different mouse tissues. Unsupervised hierarchical cluster analysis of the mRNA expression data reveals that most FGFs and FGFRs fall into two groups the expression of which is enriched in either the central nervous system or reproductive and gastrointestinal tissues. Interestingly, the FGFs that can act as endocrine hormones, including FGF15/19, FGF21, and FGF23, cluster in a third group that does not include any FGFRs, underscoring their roles in signaling between tissues. We further show that the most recently identified Klotho family member, Lactase-like, is highly and selectively expressed in brown adipose tissue and eye and can function as an additional coreceptor for FGF19. This FGF atlas provides an important resource for guiding future studies to elucidate the physiological functions of FGFs in adult animals.

Meis1 specifies positional information in the retina and tectum to organize the zebrafish visual system

Background

During visual system development, multiple signalling pathways cooperate to specify axial polarity within the retina and optic tectum. This information is required for the topographic mapping of retinal ganglion cell axons on the tectum. Meis1 is a TALE-class homeodomain transcription factor known to specify anterior-posterior identity in the hindbrain, but its role in visual system patterning has not been investigated.

Results

meis1 is expressed in both the presumptive retina and tectum. An analysis of retinal patterning reveals that Meis1 is required to correctly specify both dorsal-ventral and nasal-temporal identity in the zebrafish retina. Meis1-knockdown results in a loss of smad1 expression and an upregulation in follistatin expression, thereby causing lower levels of Bmp signalling and a partial ventralization of the retina. Additionally, Meis1-deficient embryos exhibit ectopic Fgf signalling in the developing retina and a corresponding loss of temporal identity. Meis1 also positively regulates ephrin gene expression in the tectum. Consistent with these patterning phenotypes, a knockdown of Meis1 ultimately results in retinotectal mapping defects.

Conclusions

In this work we describe a novel role for Meis1 in regulating Bmp signalling and in specifying temporal identity in the retina. By patterning both the retina and tectum, Meis1 plays an important role in establishing the retinotectal map and organizing the visual system.

Hormone-like (endocrine) Fgfs: their evolutionary history and roles in development, metabolism, and disease

Fibroblast growth factors (Fgfs) are proteins with diverse functions in development, repair, and metabolism. The human Fgf gene family with 22 members can be classified into three groups, canonical, intracellular, and hormone-like Fgf genes. In contrast to canonical and intracellular Fgfs identified in invertebrates and vertebrates, hormone-like Fgfs, Fgf15/19, Fgf21, and Fgf23, are vertebrate-specific. The ancestral gene of hormone-like Fgfs was generated from the ancestral gene of canonical Fgfs by gene duplication early in vertebrate evolution. Later, Fgf15/19, Fgf21, and Fgf23 were generated from the ancestral gene by genome duplication events. Canonical Fgfs act as autocrine/paracrine factors in an Fgf receptor (Fgfr)-dependent manner. In contrast, hormone-like Fgfs act as endocrine factors in an Fgfr-dependent manner. Canonical Fgfs have a heparin-binding site necessary for the stable binding of Fgfrs and local signaling. In contrast, hormone-like Fgfs acquired endocrine functions by reducing their heparin-binding affinity during their evolution. Fgf15/19 and Fgf23 require βKlotho and αKlotho as cofactors, respectively. However, Fgf21 might physiologically require neither. Hormone-like Fgfs play roles in metabolism at postnatal stages, although they also play roles in development at embryonic stages. Fgf15/19 regulates bile acid metabolism in the liver. Fgf21 regulates lipid metabolism in the white adipose tissue. Fgf23 regulates serum phosphate and active vitamin D levels. Fgf23 signaling disorders caused by hereditary diseases or tumors result in metabolic disorders. In addition, serum Fgf19 or Fgf21 levels are significantly increased by metabolic disorders. Hormone-like Fgfs are newly emerging and quite unique in their evolution and function.

The zebrafish mutant bumper shows a hyperproliferation of lens epithelial cells and fibre cell degeneration leading to functional blindness

The development of the eye lens is one of the classical paradigms of induction during embryonic development in vertebrates. But while there have been numerous studies aimed at discovering the genetic networks controlling early lens development, comparatively little is known about later stages, including the differentiation of secondary lens fibre cells. The analysis of mutant zebrafish isolated in forward genetic screens is an important way to investigate the roles of genes in embryogenesis. In this study we describe the zebrafish mutant bumper (bum), which shows a transient, tumour-like hyperproliferation of the lens epithelium as well as a progressively stronger defect in secondary fibre cell differentiation, which results in a significantly reduced lens size and ectopic location of the lens within the neural retina. Interestingly, the initial hyperproliferation of the lens epithelium in bum spontaneously regresses, suggesting this mutant as a valuable model to study the molecular control of tumour progression/suppression. Behavioural analyses demonstrate that, despite a morphologically normal retina, larval and adult bum(-/-) zebrafish are functionally blind. We further show that these fish have defects in their craniofacial skeleton with normal but delayed formation of the scleral ossicles within the eye, several reduced craniofacial bones resulting in an abnormal skull shape, and asymmetric ectopic bone formation within the mandible. Genetic mapping located the mutation in bum to a 4cM interval on chromosome 7 with the closest markers located at 0.2 and 0cM, respectively.

Dynamic coupling of pattern formation and morphogenesis in the developing vertebrate retina

During embryonic development, pattern formation must be tightly synchronized with tissue morphogenesis to coordinate the establishment of the spatial identities of cells with their movements. In the vertebrate retina, patterning along the dorsal-ventral and nasal-temporal (anterior-posterior) axes is required for correct spatial representation in the retinotectal map. However, it is unknown how specification of axial cell positions in the retina occurs during the complex process of early eye morphogenesis. Studying zebrafish embryos, we show that morphogenetic tissue rearrangements during eye evagination result in progenitor cells in the nasal half of the retina primordium being brought into proximity to the sources of three fibroblast growth factors, Fgf8/3/24, outside the eye. Triple-mutant analysis shows that this combined Fgf signal fully controls nasal retina identity by regulating the nasal transcription factor Foxg1. Surprisingly, nasal-temporal axis specification occurs very early along the dorsal-ventral axis of the evaginating eye. By in vivo imaging GFP-tagged retinal progenitor cells, we find that subsequent eye morphogenesis requires gradual tissue compaction in the nasal half and directed cell movements into the temporal half of the retina. Balancing these processes drives the progressive alignment of the nasal-temporal retina axis with the anterior-posterior body axis and is controlled by a feed-forward effect of Fgf signaling on Foxg1-mediated cell cohesion. Thus, the mechanistic coupling and dynamic synchronization of tissue patterning with morphogenetic cell behavior through Fgf signaling leads to the graded allocation of cell positional identity in the eye, underlying retinotectal map formation.

Fgf4 is required for left-right patterning of visceral organs in zebrafish

Fgf signaling plays essential roles in many developmental events. To investigate the roles of Fgf4 signaling in zebrafish development, we generated Fgf4 knockdown embryos by injection with Fgf4 antisense morpholino oligonucleotides. Randomized LR patterning of visceral organs including the liver, pancreas, and heart was observed in the knockdown embryos. Prominent expression of Fgf4 was observed in the posterior notochord and Kupffer's vesicle region in the early stages of segmentation. Lefty1, lefty2, southpaw, and pitx2 are known to play crucial roles in LR patterning of visceral organs. Fgf4 was essential for the expression of lefty1, which is necessary for the asymmetric expression of southpaw and pitx2 in the lateral plate mesoderm, in the posterior notochord, and the expression of lefty2 and lefty1 in the left cardiac field. Fgf8 is also known to be crucial for the formation of Kupffer's vesicle, which is needed for the LR patterning of visceral organs. In contrast, Fgf4 was required for the formation of cilia in Kupffer's vesicle, indicating that the role of Fgf4 in the LR patterning is quite distinct from that of Fgf8. The present findings indicate that Fgf4 plays a unique role in the LR patterning of visceral organs in zebrafish.

Neurodevelopment genes in lampreys reveal trends for forebrain evolution in craniates

The forebrain is the brain region which has undergone the most dramatic changes through vertebrate evolution. Analyses conducted in lampreys are essential to gain insight into the broad ancestral characteristics of the forebrain at the dawn of vertebrates, and to understand the molecular basis for the diversifications that have taken place in cyclostomes and gnathostomes following their splitting. Here, we report the embryonic expression patterns of 43 lamprey genes, coding for transcription factors or signaling molecules known to be involved in cell proliferation, stemcellness, neurogenesis, patterning and regionalization in the developing forebrain. Systematic expression patterns comparisons with model organisms highlight conservations likely to reflect shared features present in the vertebrate ancestors. They also point to changes in signaling systems –pathways which control the growth and patterning of the neuroepithelium-, which may have been crucial in the evolution of forebrain anatomy at the origin of vertebrates.

Distinct expression of two foxg1 paralogues in zebrafish

The forkhead proteins (Fox) act as transcription factors in many biological processes in a wide range of species. One member of this superfamily, Foxg1, has essential roles in the development of eyes, telencephalon, ears and olfactory system. Zebrafish foxg1 has been reported to have similar roles as the mouse orthologue Foxg1. However, no data has been reported about possible zebrafish foxg1 paralogues. In this study we identified one zebrafish foxg1 paralogue by enhancer trapping, which we designate foxg1b. A more diverged paralogue, foxg1c, was identified by homology searches. Sequence comparisons indicate that both foxg1b and foxg1c are less related to mouse than the previously characterized foxg1. We report that foxg1b is expressed in a regionally restricted pattern within the developing eye, mainly in the dorsal-nasal retina, which is similar to the retinal expression of mouse Foxg1. By contrast, foxg1c is only expressed transiently in the eyes and forebrain between 14 and 20h post-fertilization, while expression was detected exclusively in the developing inner ear at later stages. Our results suggest that foxg1b and foxg1c have undergone expression pattern divergence during evolution that has resulted in functional specialization.

FGF signals induce Caprin2 expression in the vertebrate lens

The lens of the eye is derived from the non-neural ectoderm situated next to the optic vesicle. Fibroblast growth factor (FGF) signals play a major role at various stages of vertebrate lens development ranging from induction and proliferation to differentiation. Less is however known about the identity of genes that are induced by FGF activity within the lens. We have isolated and characterized mouse cytoplasmic activation/proliferation-associated protein-2 (Caprin2), with domains belonging to both the Caprin family and the C1q and tumour necrosis factor (TNF) super-family. Here we show that Caprin2 is expressed in the developing vertebrate lens in mouse and chick, and that Caprin2 expression is up-regulated in primary lens fiber cells, after the induction of crystallins the earliest known markers for differentiated lens fiber cells. Caprin2 is subsequently down-regulated in the centre of the lens at the time and at the position of the first fiber cell denucleation and terminal differentiation. In vitro analyses of lens fiber cell differentiation provide evidence that FGF activity emanating from neighboring prospective retinal cells is required and that FGF8 activity is sufficient to induce Caprin2 in lens fiber cells. These results not only provide evidence that FGF signals induce the newly characterized protein Caprin2 in the lens, but also support the general idea that FGF signals are required for lens fiber cell differentiation.

Weaving the neuronal net with target-derived fibroblast growth factors

Fibroblast growth factors (FGFs) are a large family of secreted growth factors that are involved in the development, regeneration and repair of various tissues. In the nervous system, FGFs have been implicated in early developmental processes, such as neural induction, proliferation and patterning. Accumulating data indicate that FGFs are also important for the formation of functional neural networks. The role of FGFs in axon guidance, target recognition and synaptic differentiation as target-derived factors, and how they cooperate with cell adhesion molecules that are also involved in the wiring of the nervous system are the focus of this review.

The lens capsule

The lens capsule is a modified basement membrane that completely surrounds the ocular lens. It is known that this extracellular matrix is important for both the structure and biomechanics of the lens in addition to providing informational cues to maintain lens cell phenotype. This review covers the development and structure of the lens capsule, lens diseases associated with mutations in extracellular matrix genes and the role of the capsule in lens function including those proposed for visual accommodation, selective permeability to infectious agents, and cell signaling.

Zebrafish blowout provides genetic evidence for Patched1-mediated negative regulation of Hedgehog signaling within the proximal optic vesicle of the vertebrate eye

In this study, we have characterized the ocular defects in the recessive zebrafish mutant blowout that presents with a variably penetrant coloboma phenotype. blowout mutants develop unilateral or bilateral colobomas and as a result, the retina and retinal pigmented epithelium are not contained within the optic cup. Colobomas result from defects in optic stalk morphogenesis whereby the optic stalk extends into the retina and impedes the lateral edges of the choroid fissure from meeting and fusing. The expression domain of the proximal optic vesicle marker pax2a is expanded in blowout at the expense of the distal optic vesicle marker pax6, suggesting that the initial patterning of the optic vesicle into proximal and distal territories is disrupted in blowout. Later aspects of distal optic cup formation (i.e. retina development) are normal in blowout mutants, however. Positional cloning of blowout identified a nonsense mutation in patched1, a negative regulator of the Hedgehog pathway, as the underlying cause of the blowout phenotype. Expanded domains of expression of the Hedgehog target genes patched1 and patched2 were observed in blowout, consistent with a loss of Patched1 function and upregulation of Hedgehog pathway activity. Moreover, colobomas in blowout could be suppressed by pharmacologically inhibiting the Hedgehog pathway with cyclopamine, and maximal rescue occurred when embryos were exposed to cyclopamine between 5.5 and 13 hours post-fertilization. These observations highlight the critical role that Hedgehog pathway activity plays in mediating patterning of the proximal/distal axis of the optic vesicle during the early phases of eye development and they provide genetic confirmation for the integral role that patched1-mediated negative regulation of Hedgehog signaling plays during vertebrate eye development.