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MacDonald A, Gross A, Jones B, Dhar M. Muscle Regeneration of the Tongue: A review of current clinical and regenerative research strategies. TISSUE ENGINEERING PART B-REVIEWS 2021; 28:1022-1034. [PMID: 34693743 DOI: 10.1089/ten.teb.2021.0133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Various abnormalities of the tongue, including cancers, commonly require surgical removal to sequester growth and metastasis. However, even minor resections can affect functional outcomes such as speech and swallowing, thereby reducing quality of life. Surgical resections alone create volumetric muscle loss whereby muscle tissue cannot self-regenerate within the tongue. In these cases, the tongue is reconstructed typically in the form of autologous skin flaps. However, flap reconstruction has many limitations and unfortunately is the primary option for oral and reconstructive surgeons to treat tongue defects. The alternative, but yet undeveloped strategy for tongue reconstruction is regenerative medicine, which widely focuses on building new organs with stem cells. Regenerative medicine has successfully treated many tissues, but research has inadequately addressed the tongue as a vital organ in need of tissue engineering. In this review, we address the current standard for tongue reconstruction, the cellular mechanisms of muscle cell development, and the stem cell studies that have attempted muscle engineering within the tongue. Until now, no review has focused on engineering the tongue with regenerative medicine, which could guide innovative strategies for tongue reconstruction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amber MacDonald
- The University of Tennessee Knoxville College of Veterinary Medicine, 70737, Large Animal Clinical Sciences, 2407 River Drive, Knoxville, Tennessee, United States, 37996-4539;
| | - Andrew Gross
- The University of Tennessee Medical Center, 21823, Knoxville, Tennessee, United States;
| | - Brady Jones
- The University of Tennessee Medical Center, 21823, Knoxville, Tennessee, United States;
| | - Madhu Dhar
- University of Tennessee Knoxville College of Veterinary Medicine, 70737, Large Animal Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, 2407 River Drive, Knoxville, Tennessee, United States, 37996.,University of Tennessee;
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Muscle development : a view from adult myogenesis in Drosophila. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2020; 104:39-50. [DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2020.02.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2019] [Revised: 02/17/2020] [Accepted: 02/25/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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Peterson NG, Stormo BM, Schoenfelder KP, King JS, Lee RRS, Fox DT. Cytoplasmic sharing through apical membrane remodeling. eLife 2020; 9:58107. [PMID: 33051002 PMCID: PMC7655102 DOI: 10.7554/elife.58107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2020] [Accepted: 10/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Multiple nuclei sharing a common cytoplasm are found in diverse tissues, organisms, and diseases. Yet, multinucleation remains a poorly understood biological property. Cytoplasm sharing invariably involves plasma membrane breaches. In contrast, we discovered cytoplasm sharing without membrane breaching in highly resorptive Drosophila rectal papillae. During a six-hour developmental window, 100 individual papillar cells assemble a multinucleate cytoplasm, allowing passage of proteins of at least 62 kDa throughout papillar tissue. Papillar cytoplasm sharing does not employ canonical mechanisms such as incomplete cytokinesis or muscle fusion pore regulators. Instead, sharing requires gap junction proteins (normally associated with transport of molecules < 1 kDa), which are positioned by membrane remodeling GTPases. Our work reveals a new role for apical membrane remodeling in converting a multicellular epithelium into a giant multinucleate cytoplasm.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nora G Peterson
- Department of Cell Biology, Duke University Medical CenterDurhamUnited States
| | - Benjamin M Stormo
- Department of Cell Biology, Duke University Medical CenterDurhamUnited States
| | | | - Juliet S King
- Department of Pharmacology & Cancer Biology, Duke University Medical CenterDurhamUnited States
| | | | - Donald T Fox
- Department of Cell Biology, Duke University Medical CenterDurhamUnited States,University Program in Genetics and Genomics, Duke UniversityDurhamUnited States,Department of Pharmacology & Cancer Biology, Duke University Medical CenterDurhamUnited States
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A Large Scale Systemic RNAi Screen in the Red Flour Beetle Tribolium castaneum Identifies Novel Genes Involved in Insect Muscle Development. G3-GENES GENOMES GENETICS 2019; 9:1009-1026. [PMID: 30733381 PMCID: PMC6469426 DOI: 10.1534/g3.118.200995] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Although muscle development has been widely studied in Drosophila melanogaster there are still many gaps in our knowledge, and it is not known to which extent this knowledge can be transferred to other insects. To help in closing these gaps we participated in a large-scale RNAi screen that used the red flour beetle, Tribolium castaneum, as a screening platform. The effects of systemic RNAi were screened upon double-stranded RNA injections into appropriate muscle-EGFP tester strains. Injections into pupae were followed by the analysis of the late embryonic/early larval muscle patterns, and injections into larvae by the analysis of the adult thoracic muscle patterns. Herein we describe the results of the first-pass screens with pupal and larval injections, which covered ∼8,500 and ∼5,000 genes, respectively, of a total of ∼16,500 genes of the Tribolium genome. Apart from many genes known from Drosophila as regulators of muscle development, a collection of genes previously unconnected to muscle development yielded phenotypes in larval body wall and leg muscles as well as in indirect flight muscles. We then present the main candidates from the pupal injection screen that remained after being processed through a series of verification and selection steps. Further, we discuss why distinct though overlapping sets of genes are revealed by the Drosophila and Tribolium screening approaches.
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Taylor MV, Hughes SM. Mef2 and the skeletal muscle differentiation program. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2017; 72:33-44. [PMID: 29154822 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2017.11.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2017] [Revised: 11/11/2017] [Accepted: 11/13/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Mef2 is a conserved and significant transcription factor in the control of muscle gene expression. In cell culture Mef2 synergises with MyoD-family members in the activation of gene expression and in the conversion of fibroblasts into myoblasts. Amongst its in vivo roles, Mef2 is required for both Drosophila muscle development and mammalian muscle regeneration. Mef2 has functions in other cell-types too, but this review focuses on skeletal muscle and surveys key findings on Mef2 from its discovery, shortly after that of MyoD, up to the present day. In particular, in vivo functions, underpinning mechanisms and areas of uncertainty are highlighted. We describe how Mef2 sits at a nexus in the gene expression network that controls the muscle differentiation program, and how Mef2 activity must be regulated in time and space to orchestrate specific outputs within the different aspects of muscle development. A theme that emerges is that there is much to be learnt about the different Mef2 proteins (from different paralogous genes, spliced transcripts and species) and how the activity of these proteins is controlled.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael V Taylor
- School of Biosciences, Sir Martin Evans Building, Cardiff University, Museum Avenue, Cardiff CF10 3AX, UK.
| | - Simon M Hughes
- Randall Division of Cell and Molecular Biophysics, New Hunt's House, Guy's Campus, King's College London, London SE1 1UL UK
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Deng S, Azevedo M, Baylies M. Acting on identity: Myoblast fusion and the formation of the syncytial muscle fiber. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2017; 72:45-55. [PMID: 29101004 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2017.10.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2017] [Revised: 10/25/2017] [Accepted: 10/30/2017] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
The study of Drosophila muscle development dates back to the middle of the last century. Since that time, Drosophila has proved to be an ideal system for studying muscle development, differentiation, function, and disease. As in humans, Drosophila muscle forms via a series of conserved steps, starting with muscle specification, myoblast fusion, attachment to tendon cells, interactions with motorneurons, and sarcomere and myofibril formation. The genes and mechanisms required for these processes share striking similarities to those found in humans. The highly tractable genetic system and imaging approaches available in Drosophila allow for an efficient interrogation of muscle biology and for application of what we learn to other systems. In this article, we review our current understanding of muscle development in Drosophila, with a focus on myoblast fusion, the process responsible for the generation of syncytial muscle cells. We also compare and contrast those genes required for fusion in Drosophila and vertebrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Su Deng
- Program in Developmental Biology, Sloan Kettering Institute, New York, NY 10065, United States
| | - Mafalda Azevedo
- Program in Developmental Biology, Sloan Kettering Institute, New York, NY 10065, United States; Graduate Program in Basic and Applied Biology (GABBA), Institute of Biomedical Sciences Abel Salazar, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Mary Baylies
- Program in Developmental Biology, Sloan Kettering Institute, New York, NY 10065, United States.
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Schejter ED. Myoblast fusion: Experimental systems and cellular mechanisms. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2016; 60:112-120. [DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2016.07.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2016] [Revised: 07/11/2016] [Accepted: 07/12/2016] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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Dhanyasi N, Segal D, Shimoni E, Shinder V, Shilo BZ, VijayRaghavan K, Schejter ED. Surface apposition and multiple cell contacts promote myoblast fusion in Drosophila flight muscles. J Cell Biol 2016; 211:191-203. [PMID: 26459604 PMCID: PMC4602036 DOI: 10.1083/jcb.201503005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Transmission EM methods reveal that cell–cell fusion of individual myoblasts with growing Drosophila flight muscles is a stepwise process in which the cell adhesion and branched actin machineries mediate tight apposition and formation of multiple contacts and pores between the surfaces of the fusing cells. Fusion of individual myoblasts to form multinucleated myofibers constitutes a widely conserved program for growth of the somatic musculature. We have used electron microscopy methods to study this key form of cell–cell fusion during development of the indirect flight muscles (IFMs) of Drosophila melanogaster. We find that IFM myoblast–myotube fusion proceeds in a stepwise fashion and is governed by apparent cross talk between transmembrane and cytoskeletal elements. Our analysis suggests that cell adhesion is necessary for bringing myoblasts to within a minimal distance from the myotubes. The branched actin polymerization machinery acts subsequently to promote tight apposition between the surfaces of the two cell types and formation of multiple sites of cell–cell contact, giving rise to nascent fusion pores whose expansion establishes full cytoplasmic continuity. Given the conserved features of IFM myogenesis, this sequence of cell interactions and membrane events and the mechanistic significance of cell adhesion elements and the actin-based cytoskeleton are likely to represent general principles of the myoblast fusion process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nagaraju Dhanyasi
- Department of Molecular Genetics, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel National Centre for Biological Sciences, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Bangalore, Karnataka 560065, India Manipal University, Manipal, Karnataka 576104, India
| | - Dagan Segal
- Department of Molecular Genetics, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel
| | - Eyal Shimoni
- Department of Chemical Research Support, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel
| | - Vera Shinder
- Department of Chemical Research Support, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel
| | - Ben-Zion Shilo
- Department of Molecular Genetics, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel
| | - K VijayRaghavan
- National Centre for Biological Sciences, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Bangalore, Karnataka 560065, India
| | - Eyal D Schejter
- Department of Molecular Genetics, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel
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Chechenova MB, Maes S, Cripps RM. Expression of the Troponin C at 41C Gene in Adult Drosophila Tubular Muscles Depends upon Both Positive and Negative Regulatory Inputs. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0144615. [PMID: 26641463 PMCID: PMC4671713 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0144615] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2015] [Accepted: 11/20/2015] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Most animals express multiple isoforms of structural muscle proteins to produce tissues with different physiological properties. In Drosophila, the adult muscles include tubular-type muscles and the fibrillar indirect flight muscles. Regulatory processes specifying tubular muscle fate remain incompletely understood, therefore we chose to analyze the transcriptional regulation of TpnC41C, a Troponin C gene expressed in the tubular jump muscles, but not in the fibrillar flight muscles. We identified a 300-bp promoter fragment of TpnC41C sufficient for the fiber-specific reporter expression. Through an analysis of this regulatory element, we identified two sites necessary for the activation of the enhancer. Mutations in each of these sites resulted in 70% reduction of enhancer activity. One site was characterized as a binding site for Myocyte Enhancer Factor-2. In addition, we identified a repressive element that prevents activation of the enhancer in other muscle fiber types. Mutation of this site increased jump muscle-specific expression of the reporter, but more importantly reporter expression expanded into the indirect flight muscles. Our findings demonstrate that expression of the TpnC41C gene in jump muscles requires integration of multiple positive and negative transcriptional inputs. Identification of the transcriptional regulators binding the cis-elements that we identified will reveal the regulatory pathways controlling muscle fiber differentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria B Chechenova
- Department of Biology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, 87131, United States of America
| | - Sara Maes
- Department of Biology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, 87131, United States of America
| | - Richard M Cripps
- Department of Biology, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, 87131, United States of America
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