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Desmarquet-Trin Dinh C, Manceau M. Structure, function and formation of the amniote skin pattern. Dev Biol 2024; 517:203-216. [PMID: 39326486 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2024.09.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2024] [Revised: 09/10/2024] [Accepted: 09/23/2024] [Indexed: 09/28/2024]
Abstract
From feather and hair dotted arrays to pigmented stripes and spots, the spatial distribution of skin appendages and colouration often forms visible ornaments crucial for fitness in the coat of birds and mammals. These geometrical motifs are extremely diverse in nature. Yet, phenotypic surveys evidenced common themes in variation: the orientation, appendage-specificity or pigmentation of a given region may be conserved across groups or species. Here, we review naturalist observations of natural variation in the anatomy and ecological function of the skin pattern in amniotes. We then describe several decades of genetics, mathematical modelling and experimental embryology work aiming at understanding the molecular and morphogenetic mechanisms responsible for pattern formation. We discuss how these studies provided evidence that the morphological trends and differences representative of the phenotypic landscape of skin patterns in wild amniote species is rooted in the mechanisms controlling the production of distinct compartments in the embryonic skin.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Marie Manceau
- Centre for Interdisciplinary Research in Biology, Collège de France, Université PSL, CNRS, INSERM, France.
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2
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Sudderick ZR, Glover JD. Periodic pattern formation during embryonic development. Biochem Soc Trans 2024; 52:75-88. [PMID: 38288903 PMCID: PMC10903485 DOI: 10.1042/bst20230197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2023] [Revised: 12/21/2023] [Accepted: 01/08/2024] [Indexed: 02/29/2024]
Abstract
During embryonic development many organs and structures require the formation of series of repeating elements known as periodic patterns. Ranging from the digits of the limb to the feathers of the avian skin, the correct formation of these embryonic patterns is essential for the future form and function of these tissues. However, the mechanisms that produce these patterns are not fully understood due to the existence of several modes of pattern generation which often differ between organs and species. Here, we review the current state of the field and provide a perspective on future approaches to studying this fundamental process of embryonic development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zoe R. Sudderick
- The Roslin Institute & R(D)SVS, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, U.K
| | - James D. Glover
- The Roslin Institute & R(D)SVS, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, U.K
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3
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Johnson MR, Li S, Guerrero-Juarez CF, Miller P, Brack BJ, Mereby SA, Moreno JA, Feigin CY, Gaska J, Rivera-Perez JA, Nie Q, Ploss A, Shvartsman SY, Mallarino R. A multifunctional Wnt regulator underlies the evolution of rodent stripe patterns. Nat Ecol Evol 2023; 7:2143-2159. [PMID: 37813945 PMCID: PMC10839778 DOI: 10.1038/s41559-023-02213-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2023] [Accepted: 08/27/2023] [Indexed: 10/11/2023]
Abstract
Animal pigment patterns are excellent models to elucidate mechanisms of biological organization. Although theoretical simulations, such as Turing reaction-diffusion systems, recapitulate many animal patterns, they are insufficient to account for those showing a high degree of spatial organization and reproducibility. Here, we study the coat of the African striped mouse (Rhabdomys pumilio) to uncover how periodic stripes form. Combining transcriptomics, mathematical modelling and mouse transgenics, we show that the Wnt modulator Sfrp2 regulates the distribution of hair follicles and establishes an embryonic prepattern that foreshadows pigment stripes. Moreover, by developing in vivo gene editing in striped mice, we find that Sfrp2 knockout is sufficient to alter the stripe pattern. Strikingly, mutants exhibited changes in pigmentation, revealing that Sfrp2 also regulates hair colour. Lastly, through evolutionary analyses, we find that striped mice have evolved lineage-specific changes in regulatory elements surrounding Sfrp2, many of which may be implicated in modulating the expression of this gene. Altogether, our results show that a single factor controls coat pattern formation by acting both as an orienting signalling mechanism and a modulator of pigmentation. More broadly, our work provides insights into how spatial patterns are established in developing embryos and the mechanisms by which phenotypic novelty originates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew R Johnson
- Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA
| | - Sha Li
- Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA
| | - Christian F Guerrero-Juarez
- Carle Illinois College of Medicine, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
- Department of Developmental and Cell Biology, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA
- Department of Mathematics, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA
- Center for Complex Biological Systems, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA
- NSF-Simons Center for Multiscale Cell Fate Research, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Pearson Miller
- Center for Computational Biology, Flatiron Institute, New York, NY, USA
| | - Benjamin J Brack
- Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA
| | - Sarah A Mereby
- Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA
| | - Jorge A Moreno
- Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA
| | - Charles Y Feigin
- Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA
| | - Jenna Gaska
- Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA
| | | | - Qing Nie
- Department of Developmental and Cell Biology, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA
- Department of Mathematics, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA
- Center for Complex Biological Systems, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA
- NSF-Simons Center for Multiscale Cell Fate Research, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Alexander Ploss
- Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA
| | - Stanislav Y Shvartsman
- Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA
- Center for Computational Biology, Flatiron Institute, New York, NY, USA
- The Lewis-Sigler Institute for Integrative Genomics, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA
| | - Ricardo Mallarino
- Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA.
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4
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Staps M, Miller PW, Tarnita CE, Mallarino R. Development shapes the evolutionary diversification of rodent stripe patterns. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2023; 120:e2312077120. [PMID: 37871159 PMCID: PMC10636316 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2312077120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2023] [Accepted: 09/13/2023] [Indexed: 10/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Vertebrate groups have evolved strikingly diverse color patterns. However, it remains unknown to what extent the diversification of such patterns has been shaped by the proximate, developmental mechanisms that regulate their formation. While these developmental mechanisms have long been inaccessible empirically, here we take advantage of recent insights into rodent pattern formation to investigate the role of development in shaping pattern diversification across rodents. Based on a broad survey of museum specimens, we first establish that various rodents have independently evolved diverse patterns consisting of longitudinal stripes, varying across species in number, color, and relative positioning. We then interrogate this diversity using a simple model that incorporates recent molecular and developmental insights into stripe formation in African striped mice. Our results suggest that, on the one hand, development has facilitated pattern diversification: The diversity of patterns seen across species can be generated by a single developmental process, and small changes in this process suffice to recapitulate observed evolutionary changes in pattern organization. On the other hand, development has constrained diversification: Constraints on stripe positioning limit the scope of evolvable patterns, and although pattern organization appears at first glance phylogenetically unconstrained, development turns out to impose a cryptic constraint. Altogether, this work reveals that pattern diversification in rodents can in part be explained by the underlying development and illustrates how pattern formation models can be leveraged to interpret pattern evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Merlijn Staps
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ08544
| | - Pearson W. Miller
- Center for Computational Biology, Flatiron Institute, New York, NY10010
| | - Corina E. Tarnita
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ08544
| | - Ricardo Mallarino
- Department of Molecular Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ08544
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5
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Milinkovitch MC, Jahanbakhsh E, Zakany S. The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Reaction Diffusion in Vertebrate Skin Color Patterning. Annu Rev Cell Dev Biol 2023; 39:145-174. [PMID: 37843926 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-cellbio-120319-024414] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2023]
Abstract
In 1952, Alan Turing published the reaction-diffusion (RD) mathematical framework, laying the foundations of morphogenesis as a self-organized process emerging from physicochemical first principles. Regrettably, this approach has been widely doubted in the field of developmental biology. First, we summarize Turing's line of thoughts to alleviate the misconception that RD is an artificial mathematical construct. Second, we discuss why phenomenological RD models are particularly effective for understanding skin color patterning at the meso/macroscopic scales, without the need to parameterize the profusion of variables at lower scales. More specifically, we discuss how RD models (a) recapitulate the diversity of actual skin patterns, (b) capture the underlying dynamics of cellular interactions, (c) interact with tissue size and shape, (d) can lead to ordered sequential patterning, (e) generate cellular automaton dynamics in lizards and snakes, (f) predict actual patterns beyond their statistical features, and (g) are robust to model variations. Third, we discuss the utility of linear stability analysis and perform numerical simulations to demonstrate how deterministic RD emerges from the underlying chaotic microscopic agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michel C Milinkovitch
- Laboratory of Artificial and Natural Evolution, Department of Genetics and Evolution, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland;
| | - Ebrahim Jahanbakhsh
- Laboratory of Artificial and Natural Evolution, Department of Genetics and Evolution, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland;
| | - Szabolcs Zakany
- Laboratory of Artificial and Natural Evolution, Department of Genetics and Evolution, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland;
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6
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Dao UM, Lederer I, Tabor RL, Shahid B, Graves CW, Seidel HS. Stripes and loss of color in ball pythons (Python regius) are associated with variants affecting endothelin signaling. G3 (BETHESDA, MD.) 2023; 13:jkad063. [PMID: 37191439 PMCID: PMC10320763 DOI: 10.1093/g3journal/jkad063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2022] [Accepted: 03/10/2023] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Color patterns in nonavian reptiles are beautifully diverse, but little is known about the genetics and development of these patterns. Here, we investigated color patterning in pet ball pythons (Python regius), which have been bred to show color phenotypes that differ dramatically from the wildtype form. We report that several color phenotypes in pet animals are associated with putative loss-of-function variants in the gene encoding endothelin receptor EDNRB1: (1) frameshift variants in EDNRB1 are associated with conversion of the normal mottled color pattern to skin that is almost fully white, (2) missense variants affecting conserved sites of the EDNRB1 protein are associated with dorsal, longitudinal stripes, and (3) substitutions at EDNRB1 splice donors are associated with subtle changes in patterning compared to wildtype. We propose that these phenotypes are caused by loss of specialized color cells (chromatophores), with loss ranging from severe (fully white) to moderate (dorsal striping) to mild (subtle changes in patterning). Our study is the first to describe variants affecting endothelin signaling in a nonavian reptile and suggests that reductions in endothelin signaling in ball pythons can produce a variety of color phenotypes, depending on the degree of color cell loss.
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Affiliation(s)
- Uyen M Dao
- Department of Biology, Eastern Michigan University, Ypsilanti, MI 48197, USA
| | - Izabella Lederer
- Department of Biology, Eastern Michigan University, Ypsilanti, MI 48197, USA
| | - Ray L Tabor
- Department of Biology, Eastern Michigan University, Ypsilanti, MI 48197, USA
| | - Basmah Shahid
- Department of Biology, Eastern Michigan University, Ypsilanti, MI 48197, USA
| | - Chiron W Graves
- Department of Biology, Eastern Michigan University, Ypsilanti, MI 48197, USA
| | - Hannah S Seidel
- Department of Biology, Eastern Michigan University, Ypsilanti, MI 48197, USA
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7
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Shen Q, Zhou J, Li J, Zhao X, Zheng L, Bao H, Wu C. Genome-Wide Association Study Identifies Candidate Genes for Stripe Pattern Feather Color of Rhode Island Red Chicks. Genes (Basel) 2022; 13:genes13091511. [PMID: 36140679 PMCID: PMC9498448 DOI: 10.3390/genes13091511] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2022] [Revised: 08/17/2022] [Accepted: 08/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Feather colors of chickens are not only characteristics of breeds but also as phenotypic markers in chicken breeding. Pure-bred Rhode Island Red (RIR) chicks have a stripe pattern and a non-stripe pattern on the back. The stripe pattern of RIR is generally shown as four longitudinal black stripes on the back and is more likely to appear in females. In this study, we performed a genome-wide association study (GWAS) to identify candidate genes controlling the stripe pattern of RIR chicks, and then, based on physical location and biological functions, quantitative RT-PCR analysis was used to validate the differential expression of candidate genes between stripe pattern and non-stripe pattern back skin tissue. The GWAS showed that a major signal contains 768 significant single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and 87 significant small insertions-deletions (INDELs) spanning 41.78 to 43.05 Mb (~1.27 Mb) on GGA1, corresponding to 16 genes associated with stripe pattern phenotype. Among these 16 genes, KITLG and TMTC3 could be considered candidate genes as they showed different expressions between back skin tissues of stripe pattern and non-stripe pattern chicks in value (p = 0.062) and the significant level (p < 0.05), respectively. This study provided novel insight into the mechanisms underlying feather pigmentation and stripe formation in RIR chicks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qingmiao Shen
- National Engineering Laboratory for Animal Breeding, College of Animal Science and Technology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Jieke Zhou
- National Engineering Laboratory for Animal Breeding, College of Animal Science and Technology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Junying Li
- National Engineering Laboratory for Animal Breeding, College of Animal Science and Technology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Xiaoyu Zhao
- Dawu Breeding Company, Baoding 072550, China
| | - Lijie Zheng
- Dawu Breeding Company, Baoding 072550, China
| | - Haigang Bao
- National Engineering Laboratory for Animal Breeding, College of Animal Science and Technology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
- Correspondence:
| | - Changxin Wu
- National Engineering Laboratory for Animal Breeding, College of Animal Science and Technology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
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8
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Price-Waldman R, Stoddard MC. Avian Coloration Genetics: Recent Advances and Emerging Questions. J Hered 2021; 112:395-416. [PMID: 34002228 DOI: 10.1093/jhered/esab015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2021] [Accepted: 03/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The colorful phenotypes of birds have long provided rich source material for evolutionary biologists. Avian plumage, beaks, skin, and eggs-which exhibit a stunning range of cryptic and conspicuous forms-inspired early work on adaptive coloration. More recently, avian color has fueled discoveries on the physiological, developmental, and-increasingly-genetic mechanisms responsible for phenotypic variation. The relative ease with which avian color traits can be quantified has made birds an attractive system for uncovering links between phenotype and genotype. Accordingly, the field of avian coloration genetics is burgeoning. In this review, we highlight recent advances and emerging questions associated with the genetic underpinnings of bird color. We start by describing breakthroughs related to 2 pigment classes: carotenoids that produce red, yellow, and orange in most birds and psittacofulvins that produce similar colors in parrots. We then discuss structural colors, which are produced by the interaction of light with nanoscale materials and greatly extend the plumage palette. Structural color genetics remain understudied-but this paradigm is changing. We next explore how colors that arise from interactions among pigmentary and structural mechanisms may be controlled by genes that are co-expressed or co-regulated. We also identify opportunities to investigate genes mediating within-feather micropatterning and the coloration of bare parts and eggs. We conclude by spotlighting 2 research areas-mechanistic links between color vision and color production, and speciation-that have been invigorated by genetic insights, a trend likely to continue as new genomic approaches are applied to non-model species.
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9
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Wang X, Bai D. Self‐Organization Principles of Cell Cycles and Gene Expressions in the Development of Cell Populations. ADVANCED THEORY AND SIMULATIONS 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/adts.202100005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoliang Wang
- College of Life Sciences Zhejiang University Hangzhou 310058 China
- School of Physical Sciences University of Science and Technology of China Hefei 230026 China
| | - Dongyun Bai
- School of Physics and Astronomy Shanghai Jiao Tong University Shanghai 200240 China
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10
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Decoding the Evolution of Melanin in Vertebrates. Trends Ecol Evol 2021; 36:430-443. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tree.2020.12.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2020] [Revised: 12/18/2020] [Accepted: 12/23/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
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11
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Hánová A, Konečný A, Nicolas V, Denys C, Granjon L, Lavrenchenko LA, Šumbera R, Mikula O, Bryja J. Multilocus phylogeny of African striped grass mice (Lemniscomys): Stripe pattern only partly reflects evolutionary relationships. Mol Phylogenet Evol 2020; 155:107007. [PMID: 33160039 DOI: 10.1016/j.ympev.2020.107007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2020] [Revised: 10/20/2020] [Accepted: 10/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Murine rodents are one of the most evolutionary successful groups of extant mammals. They are also important for human as vectors and reservoirs of zoonoses and agricultural pests. Unfortunately, their fast and relatively recent diversification impedes our understanding of phylogenetic relationships and species limits of many murine taxa, including those with very conspicuous phenotype that has been frequently used for taxonomic purposes. One of such groups are the striped grass mice (genus Lemniscomys), distributed across sub-Saharan Africa in 11 currently recognized species. These are traditionally classified into three morphological groups according to different pelage colouration on the back: (a) L. barbarus group (three species) with several continuous pale longitudinal stripes; (b) L. striatus group (four species) with pale stripes diffused into short lines or dots; and (c) L. griselda group (four species) with a single mid-dorsal black stripe. Here we reconstructed the most comprehensive molecular phylogeny of the genus Lemniscomys to date, using the largest currently available multi-locus genetic dataset of all but two species. The results show four main lineages (=species complexes) with the distribution corresponding to the major biogeographical regions of Africa. Surprisingly, the four phylogenetic lineages are only in partial agreement with the morphological classification, suggesting that the single-stripe and/or multi-striped phenotypes evolved independently in multiple lineages. Divergence dating showed the split of Lemniscomys and Arvicanthis genera at the beginning of Pleistocene; most of subsequent speciation processes within Lemniscomys were affected by Pleistocene climate oscillations, with predominantly allopatric diversification in fragmented savanna biome. We propose taxonomic suggestions and directions for future research of this striking group of African rodents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra Hánová
- Institute of Vertebrate Biology of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Květná 8, 603 65 Brno, Czech Republic; Department of Botany and Zoology, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Kotlářská 2, 611 37 Brno, Czech Republic.
| | - Adam Konečný
- Department of Botany and Zoology, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Kotlářská 2, 611 37 Brno, Czech Republic.
| | - Violaine Nicolas
- Institut de Systématique, Evolution, Biodiversité (ISYEB), Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle, CNRS, Sorbonne Université, EPHE, Université des Antilles, CP51, 75005 Paris, France.
| | - Christiane Denys
- Institut de Systématique, Evolution, Biodiversité (ISYEB), Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle, CNRS, Sorbonne Université, EPHE, Université des Antilles, CP51, 75005 Paris, France.
| | - Laurent Granjon
- CBGP, IRD, CIRAD, INRAE, Institut Agro, Univ Montpellier, 755 avenue du Campus Agropolis, CS 30016, 34988 Montferrier-sur-Lez cedex, France.
| | - Leonid A Lavrenchenko
- Severtsov Institute of Ecology and Evolution, Russian Academy of Sciences, Leninskii pr. 33, Moscow 119071, Russia.
| | - Radim Šumbera
- Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia, Branišovská 1760, 370 05 České Budějovice, Czech Republic.
| | - Ondřej Mikula
- Institute of Vertebrate Biology of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Květná 8, 603 65 Brno, Czech Republic.
| | - Josef Bryja
- Institute of Vertebrate Biology of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Květná 8, 603 65 Brno, Czech Republic; Department of Botany and Zoology, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Kotlářská 2, 611 37 Brno, Czech Republic.
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12
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Inaba M, Chuong CM. Avian Pigment Pattern Formation: Developmental Control of Macro- (Across the Body) and Micro- (Within a Feather) Level of Pigment Patterns. Front Cell Dev Biol 2020; 8:620. [PMID: 32754601 PMCID: PMC7365947 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2020.00620] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2020] [Accepted: 06/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Animal color patterns are of interest to many fields, such as developmental biology, evolutionary biology, ethology, mathematical biology, bio-mimetics, etc. The skin provides easy access to experimentation and analysis enabling the developmental pigment patterning process to be analyzed at the cellular and molecular level. Studies in animals with distinct pigment patterns (such as zebrafish, horse, feline, etc.) have revealed some genetic information underlying color pattern formation. Yet, how the complex pigment patterns in diverse avian species are established remains an open question. Here we summarize recent progress. Avian plumage shows color patterns occurring at different spatial levels. The two main levels are macro- (across the body) and micro- (within a feather) pigment patterns. At the cellular level, colors are mainly produced by melanocytes generating eumelanin (black) and pheomelanin (yellow, orange). These melanin-based patterns are regulated by melanocyte migration, differentiation, cell death, and/or interaction with neighboring skin cells. In addition, non-melanin chemical pigments and structural colors add more colors to the available palette in different cell types or skin regions. We discuss classic and recent tissue transplantation experiments that explore the avian pigment patterning process and some potential molecular mechanisms. We find color patterns can be controlled autonomously by melanocytes but also non-autonomously by dermal cells. Complex plumage color patterns are generated by the combination of these multi-scale patterning mechanisms. These interactions can be further modulated by environmental factors such as sex hormones, which generate striking sexual dimorphic colors in avian integuments and can also be influenced by seasons and aging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masafumi Inaba
- Department of Pathology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Cheng-Ming Chuong
- Department of Pathology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
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13
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Ding B, Patterson EL, Holalu SV, Li J, Johnson GA, Stanley LE, Greenlee AB, Peng F, Bradshaw HD, Blinov ML, Blackman BK, Yuan YW. Two MYB Proteins in a Self-Organizing Activator-Inhibitor System Produce Spotted Pigmentation Patterns. Curr Biol 2020; 30:802-814.e8. [PMID: 32155414 PMCID: PMC7156294 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2019.12.067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2019] [Revised: 11/24/2019] [Accepted: 12/20/2019] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Many organisms exhibit visually striking spotted or striped pigmentation patterns. Developmental models predict that such spatial patterns can form when a local autocatalytic feedback loop and a long-range inhibitory feedback loop interact. At its simplest, this self-organizing network only requires one self-activating activator that also activates a repressor, which inhibits the activator and diffuses to neighboring cells. However, the molecular activators and inhibitors fully fitting this versatile model remain elusive in pigmentation systems. Here, we characterize an R2R3-MYB activator and an R3-MYB repressor in monkeyflowers (Mimulus). Through experimental perturbation and mathematical modeling, we demonstrate that the properties of these two proteins correspond to an activator-inhibitor pair in a two-component, reaction-diffusion system, explaining the formation of dispersed anthocyanin spots in monkeyflower petals. Notably, disrupting this pattern impacts pollinator visitation. Thus, subtle changes in simple activator-inhibitor systems are likely essential contributors to the evolution of the remarkable diversity of pigmentation patterns in flowers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Baoqing Ding
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Connecticut, 75 North Eagleville Road, Unit 3043, Storrs, CT 06269, USA
| | - Erin L Patterson
- Department of Plant and Microbial Biology, University of California, Berkeley, 111 Koshland Hall #3102, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA; Department of Biology, University of Virginia, P.O. Box 400328, Charlottesville, VA 22904, USA
| | - Srinidhi V Holalu
- Department of Plant and Microbial Biology, University of California, Berkeley, 111 Koshland Hall #3102, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA; Department of Biology, University of Virginia, P.O. Box 400328, Charlottesville, VA 22904, USA
| | - Jingjian Li
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Connecticut, 75 North Eagleville Road, Unit 3043, Storrs, CT 06269, USA; College of Forestry and Landscape Architecture, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Grace A Johnson
- Department of Plant and Microbial Biology, University of California, Berkeley, 111 Koshland Hall #3102, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Lauren E Stanley
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Connecticut, 75 North Eagleville Road, Unit 3043, Storrs, CT 06269, USA
| | - Anna B Greenlee
- Department of Biology, University of Virginia, P.O. Box 400328, Charlottesville, VA 22904, USA
| | - Foen Peng
- Department of Biology, University of Washington, Box 351800, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - H D Bradshaw
- Department of Biology, University of Washington, Box 351800, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Michael L Blinov
- Center for Cell Analysis and Modeling, University of Connecticut Health Center, 263 Farmington Avenue, Farmington, CT 06030, USA
| | - Benjamin K Blackman
- Department of Plant and Microbial Biology, University of California, Berkeley, 111 Koshland Hall #3102, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA; Department of Biology, University of Virginia, P.O. Box 400328, Charlottesville, VA 22904, USA.
| | - Yao-Wu Yuan
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Connecticut, 75 North Eagleville Road, Unit 3043, Storrs, CT 06269, USA; Institute for Systems Genomics, University of Connecticut, 67 North Eagleville Road, Storrs, CT 06269, USA.
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Korshunova T, Malmberg K, Prkić J, Petani A, Fletcher K, Lundin K, Martynov A. Fine-scale species delimitation: speciation in process and periodic patterns in nudibranch diversity. Zookeys 2020; 917:15-50. [PMID: 32206016 PMCID: PMC7076062 DOI: 10.3897/zookeys.917.47444] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2019] [Accepted: 01/02/2020] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Using the nudibranch genus Amphorina as a model, ongoing speciation is demonstrated, as well as how periodic-like patterns in colouration can be included in an integrated method of fine-scale species delimitation. By combining several methods, including BPP analysis and the study of molecular, morphological, and ecological data from a large number of specimens within a broad geographic range from northern Europe to the Mediterranean, five species are recognised within the genus Amphorina, reviewed here for the first time. Two new species from the southwestern coast of Sweden are described, A. viriola sp. nov. and A. andra sp. nov. Evidence is provided of a recent speciation process between the two closely related, yet separate, species which inhabit the same geographic localities but demonstrate strict water depth differentiation, with one species inhabiting the shallow brackish top layer above the halocline and the other species inhabiting the underlying saltier water. The results presented here are of relevance for currently debated issues such as conservation in relation to speciation, fine species delimitation, and integration of molecular, morphological and ecological information in biodiversity studies. The periodic approach to biological taxonomy has considerable practical potential for various organismal groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tatiana Korshunova
- Koltzov Institute of Developmental Biology RAS, 26 Vavilova Str., 119334 Moscow, Russia Koltzov Institute of Developmental Biology RAS Moscow Russia.,Zoological Museum, Moscow State University, Bolshaya Nikitskaya Str. 6, 125009 Moscow, Russia Moscow State University Moscow Russia
| | - Klas Malmberg
- Aquatilis, Nostravägen 11, S-41743, Gothenburg, Sweden Aquatilis Gothenburgh Sweden
| | - Jakov Prkić
- Getaldiceva 11, C 21000 Split, Croatia Unaffiliated Split Croatia
| | - Alen Petani
- Put Kotlara 6, C 23000 Zadar, Croatia Unaffiliated Zadar Croatia
| | - Karin Fletcher
- Port Orchard, Washington, 98366, USA Unaffiliated Port Orchard United States of America
| | - Kennet Lundin
- Gothenburg Natural History Museum, Box 7283, SE-40235, Gothenburg, Sweden Gothenburg Natural History Museum Gothenburg Sweden.,Gothenburg Global Biodiversity Centre, Box 461, SE-40530, Gothenburg, Sweden Gothenburg Global Biodiversity Centre Gothenburg Sweden
| | - Alexander Martynov
- Zoological Museum, Moscow State University, Bolshaya Nikitskaya Str. 6, 125009 Moscow, Russia Moscow State University Moscow Russia
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